The Philosophy of Social Science: A Contemporary Introduction examines the perennial questions of philosophy by engaging with the empirical study of society. The book offers a comprehensive overview of debates in the field, with special attention to questions arising from new research programs in the social sciences. The text uses detailed examples of social scientific research to motivate and illustrate the philosophical discussion. Topics include the relationship of social policy to social science, interpretive research, action explanation, game theory, social scientific (...) accounts of norms, joint intentionality, reductionism, causal modeling, case study research, and experimentation. (shrink)

Background: Current practice frequently fails to provide care consistent with the preferences of decisionally-incapacitated patients. It also imposes significant emotional burden on their surrogates. Algorithmic-based patient preference predictors (PPPs) have been proposed as a possible way to address these two concerns. While previous research found that patients strongly support the use of PPPs, the views of surrogates are unknown. The present study thus assessed the views of experienced surrogates regarding the possible use of PPPs as a means to help make (...) treatment decisions for decisionally-incapacitated patients. -/- Methods: This qualitative study used semi-structured interviews to determine the views of experienced surrogates [n=26] who were identified from two academic medical centers and two community hospitals. The primary outcomes were respondents’ overall level of support for the idea of using PPPs and the themes related to their views on how a PPP should be used, if at all, in practice. -/- Results: Overall, 21 participants supported the idea of using PPPs. The remaining five indicated that they would not use a PPP because they made decisions based on the patient’s best interests, not based on substituted judgment. Major themes which emerged were that surrogates, not the patient’s preferences, should determine how treatment decisions are made, and concern that PPPs might be used to deny expensive care or be biased against minority groups. -/- Conclusions: Surrogates, like patients, strongly support the idea of using PPPs to help make treatment decisions for decisionally-incapacitated patients. These findings provide support for developing a PPP and assessing it in practice. At the same time, patients and surrogates disagree over whose preferences should determine how treatment decisions are made, including whether to use a PPP. These findings reveal a fundamental disagreement regarding the guiding principles for surrogate decision-making. Future research is needed to assess this disagreement and consider ways to address it. (shrink)

Mindfulness is a form of meditation that derives from Buddhist practice and is one of the fastest growing areas of psychological research. Studies investigating the role of mindfulness in the treatment of behavioural addictions have – to date – primarily focused on gambling disorder. Recent pilot studies and clinical case studies have demonstrated that weekly mindfulness therapy sessions can lead to clinically significant change among individuals with gambling problems. Although preliminary findings indicate that there are applications for mindfulness approaches in (...) the treatment of gambling disorder, further empirical and clinical research utilizing larger-sample controlled study designs is clearly needed. (shrink)

Mark Coeckelbergh starts his book with a very powerful picture based on a real incident: On the 9th of January 2020, Robert Williams was wrongfully arrested by Detroit police officers in front of his two young daughters, wife and neighbors. For 18 hours the police would not disclose the grounds for his arrest (American Civil Liberties Union 2020; Hill 2020). The decision to arrest him was primarily based on a facial detection algorithm which matched Mr. Williams’ driving license photo (...) with the picture of a man who was suspected of watch theft two years earlier. Not only did the computer ‘get it wrong’ as one of the detectives said, when Mr. Williams made them aware that the picture of the suspect obviously wasn’t resembling him, the probably unreliable algorithm very likely contributed to racial discrimination (Hill 2020). It is well documented that many available facial detection algorithms at this time had significant problems (e.g. a comparably high false positive rate) with respect to black persons, like Mr. Williams (NIST 2019). Multiple causes may exist, such as unbalanced training datasets and insufficient optimization. Coeckelbergh compares the disturbing case of Mr. Williams with a political interpretation of Franz Kafka’s The Trial, where the protagonist, Josef K., is accused of an unspecified crime by an opaque, oppressive and absurd bureaucracy: “In the 21st-century United States, Josef K. is black and is falsely accused by an algorithm, without explanation” (p. 2). (shrink)

Within the Anglo-American world, economic liberalism is generally viewed as having only one progenitor—Adam Smith—and one offspring—neoliberalism. But it actually has two. The work of G. W. F. Hegel was also very influential on the development of economic liberalism, at least in the German-speaking world, and the most powerful contemporary instantiation of economic liberalism within that world is not neoliberlaism, but ordoliberalism, although this is generally unknown and certainly unacknowledged outside of Continental Europe. Accordingly, what I am going to be (...) doing in this piece is trying to bring ordoliberalism more directly into the light—I will argue that by comparing and contrasting the views of Smith and Hegel or at least between how Smith and Hegel tend to be currently (mis)understood, we can better understand both the roots and the nature of these two contemporary incarnations of economic liberalism, and the light this sheds, in turn, brings some interesting and important features of these two contemporary theories into view. From Smith, for example, neoliberals took the idea of the invisible hand, although I am going to argue that contemporary advocates of invisible hand theory have largely misconstrued or at the very least overstated the significance of this metaphor. From Hegel, in contrast, ordoliberals took the idea of the civil society, and I will argue that the civil society is a much better metaphor not only for Hegel's but also for Smith's views. Indeed, I will argue that ordoliberalism, not neoliberalism, is a better and more coherent instantiation of economic liberalism than neoliberalism could ever be. (shrink)

In this paper, I contest increasingly common "realist" interpretations of Hegel's theory of "the concept" (der Begriff), offering instead a "isomorphic" conception of the relation of concepts and the world. The isomorphism recommended, however, is metaphysically deflationary, for I show how Hegel's conception of conceptual form creates a conceptually internal standard for the adequacy of concepts. No "sideways-on" theory of the concept-world relationship is envisioned. This standard of conceptual adequacy is also "graduated" in that it allows for a lack of (...) fit between concept and world. The possibility for a "maximally isomorphic" fit between concept and world obtains through the teleological realization of concepts, which marks especially the "artificial" world of human culture (law, art, religion, etc.). Some of the most seemingly exaggerated claims Hegel makes about the concept, I contend, can be understood when we consider the significance Hegel ascribes to human making, which is provided for in his conceptual theory. But my framework provides an interpretive key for the way Hegel sees concepts imperfectly realized in the natural world as well. (shrink)

In this essay, I give an analysis of the account of non-being in the Weltalter, focusing on the ways in which this account reflects Schelling’s new ontology of revelation. I begin by discussing the connection between non-being and the fundamental distinction between the principles in God. I then turn to the relationship of non-being to being in the Weltalter and show how a new meaning of being allows Schelling to distinguish non-being from nothing. The new meaning of being also makes (...) possible a distinction between essential non-being and de facto non-being; this distinction allows for the temporal sequence of revelation and the possibility of evil. I conclude by showing the implications of Schelling’s theory of non-being for his understanding of creation. (shrink)

Few of Kant’s doctrines are as difficult to understand as that of self-affection. Its brief career in the published literature consists principally in its unheralded introduction in the Transcendental Aesthetic and unexpected re-appearance at a key moment in the Deduction chapter in the B edition of the first Critique. Kant’s commentators, confronted with the difficulty of this doctrine, have naturally resorted to various strategies of clarification, ranging from distinguishing between empirical and transcendental self-affection, divorcing self-affection from the claims of self-knowledge (...) with which Kant explicitly connects it, and, perhaps least justified of all, ignoring the doctrine altogether. Yet the connection between self-affection and central Critical doctrines (such as the transcendental synthesis of the imagination) marks all of these strategies as last resorts. In this paper, I seek to provide a clearer outline of the constellation of those issues which inform Kant’s discussion of self-affection. More particularly, I intend to explain the crucial role played by self-affection in the account of the transcendental conditions of perception provided late in the B Deduction. (shrink)

This paper is about the work of a long forgotten philosopher and his views which have surprising relevance to discussions in present-day philosophy of mind and cognitive science. I argue that, far from being a traditional idealist, Mitchell advanced a very subtle position best seen as marking a transition from idealist views and later materialist accounts, the latter popularly attributed to Australian philosophers in the second half of the 20th century.

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:diacritics 35.1 (2005) 8-21MuseSearchJournalsThis JournalContents[Access article in PDF]Klossowski's Reading of Nietzsche Impulses, Phantasms, Simulacra, StereotypesDaniel W. SmithIn his writings on Nietzsche, Pierre Klossowski makes use of various concepts—such as intensities, phantasms, simulacra and stereotypes, resemblance and dissemblance, gregariousness and singularity—that have no place in Nietzsche's own oeuvre. These concepts are Klossowski's own creations, his own contributions to thought. Although Klossowski consistently refused to characterize himself as a philosopher ("Je (...) suis une 'maniaque,'" he once said, "Un point, c'est tout!"),1 his work in its entirety was marked by an extraordinary conceptual creation. From this point of view, his Nietzsche and the Vicious Circle can be read as a work in philosophy—at least in the idiosyncratic sense given to this term by Gilles Deleuze, who defined philosophy as the creation or invention of concepts [Deleuze and Guattari 2]. No doubt, Klossowski remains an almost unclassifiable figure—philosopher, novelist, essayist, translator, artist—and attempting to analyze his work through the prism of philosophy may seem to be a reductive approach that belies the complexity of his exceptional oeuvre. Reading Klossowski as a conceptual innovator, however, at least has the advantage of allowing us to chart a consistent trajectory through his difficult and often labyrinthine text, without denying its other dimensions (affective, perceptive, literary, and so on). In what follows, then, I would like to examine three of Klossowski's most characteristic and important concepts—impulses and their intensities, phantasms, and simulacra and their stereotypes—as well as the precise interrelations he establishes among them. Taken together, these three concepts describe what Klossowski terms the tripartite economy of soul, which constitutes the implicit model through which he interprets Nietzsche's thought.1Impulses as Fluctuating IntensitiesKlossowski describes his books on both Nietzsche and Sade as "essays devoted not to ideologies but to the physiognomies of problematic thinkers who differ greatly from each other" ["Postface" 137, emphasis added]. This emphasis on the "physiognomy" of thinkers reflects Nietzsche's insistence on taking the body rather than the mind as a guide for philosophy since the body is a more accessible phenomenon, less surrounded by myth and superstition. "The body and physiology as the starting point," Nietzsche wrote. "Why?... The phenomenon of the body is the richer, clearer, more tangible [End Page 8] phenomenon.... Belief in the body is more fundamental than belief in the soul" [WP §§492, 489, 491]. Klossowski himself, however, when writing of the intensive status of the impulses, frequently makes use of the term "soul" (âme), owing in part, no doubt, to his interest in the theological literature of the mystics, such as Meister Eckhardt and Teresa of Avila. For the mystics, the depth of the soul is something irreducible and uncreated: it eludes the exercise of the created intellect, and can only be grasped negatively.2 Nonetheless, if one can find a similar apophaticism (or "negative theology") in Klossowski, it is related exclusively to the immanent and chaotic movements of the soul's intensive affects, and not to the transcendence of God. What is incommunicable in the soul (or body) are its "impulses"—their fluctuations of intensity, their rises and falls, their manic elations and depressive descents, which are in constant variation.Nietzsche himself had recourse to a highly varied vocabulary to describe what Klossowski summarizes in the term "impulse": "drive" (Triebe), "desire" (Begierden), "instinct" (Instinke), "power" (Mächte), "force" (Kräfte), "impulse" (Reize, Impulse), "passion" (Leidenschaften), "feeling" (Gefülen), "affect" (Affekte), "pathos" (Pathos), and so on.3 Klossowski frequently employs the musical term tonalité to describe these states of the soul's fluctuating intensities—their diverse tones, timbres, and changing amplitudes—which can take on various forms ("aggressiveness, tolerance, intimidation, anguish, the need for solitude, the forgetting of oneself" [NVC 6]). At bottom, what these impulses express are what Klossowski calls the "obstinate singularity" of the human soul, which is by nature noncommunicable; they constitute "the unexchangeable depth" (le fond inéchangeable) or "the unintelligible depth" (le fond unintelligible) of the soul. What makes every individual... (shrink)

Wrong beliefs, known by some as ‘alternative facts’, have proliferated lately in important areas of human life, including social, political, and public health domains. This can be and has been damaging. This brief article proposes an epistemological category classification of these wrong beliefs, with the following mappings: a) ‘No-Information’ marked by willful blindness produces ‘Empty Beliefs’; b) ‘Mis-Information’ yields ‘Mis(taken) Beliefs’; and c) ‘Dis-Information’ predicated on blatant distortions produces ‘Dis(torted) Beliefs’. This simple classification system, is perhaps epistemologically satisfying, and moreover (...) could have positive policy implications. (shrink)

In this paper, I argue that it is open to semicompatibilists to maintain that no ability to do otherwise is required for moral responsibility. This is significant for two reasons. First, it undermines Christopher Evan Franklin’s recent claim that everyone thinks that an ability to do otherwise is necessary for free will and moral responsibility. Second, it reveals an important difference between John Martin Fischer’s semicompatibilism and Kadri Vihvelin’s version of classical compatibilism, which shows that the dispute between them is (...) not merely a verbal dispute. Along the way, I give special attention to the notion of general abilities, and, though I defend the distinctiveness of Fischer’s semicompatibilism against the verbal dispute charge, I also use the discussion of the nature of general abilities to argue for the falsity of a certain claim that Fischer and coauthor Mark Ravizza have made about their account. (shrink)

The paper by Monteiro, Musten and Compson (2014) is to be commended for providing a comprehensive discussion of the compatibility issues arising from the integration of mindfulness – a 2,500-year-old Buddhist practice – into research and applied psychological domains. Consistent with the observations of various others (e.g., Dunne, 2011; Kang & Whittingham, 2010), Monteiro and colleagues have not only highlighted that there are differences in how Buddhism and contemporary mindfulness interventional approaches interpret and contextualize mindfulness, but there are also differing (...) interpretations of mindfulness within Buddhism. These apparent differences within Buddhism are arguably more noticeable when making comparisons across Buddhist vehicles (i.e., Theravada, Mahayana, Vajrayana), but to a lesser extent intra-vehicular differences can also be said to exist (i.e., differences between Buddhist traditions of the same vehicle). This commentary investigates the validity of some of these different Buddhist constructions of mindfulness, and then discusses how a better understanding of their scriptural and conceptual soundness (or lack thereof) may help to reconcile some of the actual and perceived incompatibility between Buddhist practice and contemporary secular mindfulness-based approaches. (shrink)

This essay appeared as a contribution to a special issue of European Journal of Philosophy to mark the fiftieth anniversary of the publication of P. F. Strawson’s The Bounds of Sense. In that book Strawson asks whether we should agree with Kant's claim, in his Critique of Pure Reason, that there can be only one world. What Kant means by this claim is that the four-dimensional realm that we inhabit must constitute the whole of empirical reality. Strawson gives reasons (...) for challenging this claim. This essay raises the question whether, even if Strawson is right, we may nevertheless have reason to believe that there can be only one world on a broader understanding of ‘world’. The aim is as much to clarify the issue as to settle it, although an attempt is made to motivate the view that there can indeed be only one world on this broader understanding. (shrink)

Albert Musschenga | : The central question of this article is, Are animals morally responsible for what they do? Answering this question requires a careful, step-by-step argument. In sections 1 and 2, I explain what morality is, and that having a morality means following moral rules or norms. In sections 3 and 4, I argue that some animals show not just regularities in their social behaviour, but can be rightly said to follow social norms. But are the norms they follow (...) also moral norms? In section 5, I contend, referring to the work of Shaun Nichols, that the basic moral competences or capacities are already present in nonhuman primates. Following moral rules or norms is more than just acting in accordance to these norms; it requires being motivated by moral rules. I explain, in section 6, referring to Mark Rowlands, that being capable of moral motivation does not require agency; being a moral subject is sufficient. Contrary to moral agents, moral subjects are not responsible for their behaviour. Stating that there are important similarities between animal moral behaviour and human, unconscious, automatic, habitual behaviour, I examine in section 7 whether humans are responsible for their habitual moral behaviour, and if they are, what then the grounds are for denying that moral animals are responsible for their behaviour. The answer is that humans are responsible for their habitual behaviour if they have the capacity for deliberate intervention. Although animals are capable of intervention in their habitual behaviour, they are not capable of deliberate intervention. | : La question centrale dans cet article est celle de savoir si les animaux sont moralement responsables de ce qu’ils font. Répondre à cette question nécessite une argumentation minutieuse et progressive. Dans les sections 1 et 2, j’explique ce qu’est la moralité, et qu’être doté de moralité signifie de se conformer à des règles ou à des normes morales. Dans les sections 3 et 4, je pose que certains animaux ne se contentent pas de montrer des régularités dans leur comportement social, mais qu’ils suivent aussi véritablement des normes sociales. Toutefois, les normes qu’ils suivent sont-elles morales? Dans la section 5, je prétends, en me référant aux travaux de Shaun Nichols, que les compétences ou capacités morales de base sont déjà présentes chez les primates non humains. Respecter des règles ou des normes morales est bien plus que d’agir conformément à ces normes; cela requiert d’être motivé par des règles morales. Dans la section 6, me référant à Mark Rowlands, j’explique que d’être capable de motivation morale ne nécessite pas d’être un agent moral; le fait d’être un sujet moral suffit. Contrairement aux agents moraux, les sujets moraux ne sont pas responsables de leur comportement. Affirmant qu’il y a de grandes similitudes entre le comportement moral d’un animal et le comportement inconscient, automatique et habituel d’un humain, je me penche, dans la section 7, sur la question de savoir si les humains sont responsables de leur comportement moral habituel, et si tel est le cas, sur quelle base on peut alors nier le fait que les animaux sont eux aussi responsables de leur comportement. La réponse à cette question est que les humains sont responsables de leur comportement habituel s’ils disposent d’une capacité d’intervention réfléchie, délibérée. Bien que les animaux soient capables d’intervenir dans leurs comportements habituels, ils ne peuvent le faire de manière réfléchie, délibérée. (shrink)

Objectives. The purpose of this study was to conduct the first randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate the effectiveness of a second-generation mindfulness-based intervention (SG-MBI) for treating fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS). Compared to first generation mindfulness-based interventions, SG-MBIs are more acknowledging of the spiritual aspect of mindfulness. Design. A RCT employing intent-to-treat analysis. Methods. Adults with FMS received an 8-week SG-MBI known as meditation awareness training (MAT; n = 74) or an active control intervention known as cognitive behaviour theory for groups (...) (n = 74). Assessments were performed at pre-, post-, and 6-month follow-up phases. Results. Meditation awareness training participants demonstrated significant and sustained improvements over control group participants in FMS symptomatology, pain perception, sleep quality, psychological distress, non-attachment (to self, symptoms, and environment), and civic engagement. A mediation analysis found that (1) civic engagement partially mediated treatment effects for all outcome variables, (2) non-attachment partially mediated treatment effects for psychological distress and sleep quality, and (3) non-attachment almost fully mediated treatment effects for FMS symptomatology and pain perception. Average daily time spent in meditation was found to be a significant predictor of changes in all outcome variables. Conclusions. Meditation awareness training may be a suitable treatment for adults with FMS and appears to ameliorate FMS symptomatology and pain perception by reducing attachment to self. (shrink)

In this paper, I explore a possible convergence between two great twentieth century thinkers, Nishida Kitarō of Japan and Martin Heidegger of Germany. The focus is on the quasi-religious language they employ in discussing the grounding of human existence in terms of an encompassing Wherein for our being. Heidegger speaks of “the sacred” and “the passing of the last god” that mark an empty clearing wherein all metaphysical absolutes or gods have withdrawn but are simultaneously indicative of an opening (...) wherein beings are given. Nishida speaks of “the religious” dimension in the depths of one's being, that he calls “place,” and that somehow envelops the world through its kenotic self-negation. In both we find reference to a kind of originary space—the open or place—associated with quasireligious themes. I also point to their distinct approaches to metaphysical language in their attempts to give voice to that abysmal thought. (shrink)

This seminal paper, which marks a turning point of the chemical revolution, is presented for the first time in a complete English translation. In this first half Lavoisier undermines phlogiston chemistry by arguing that his French contemporaries had replaced Stahl’s original theory with radically different systems that conceptualised the phlogiston principle in completely incompatible ways. He refutes their claims by showing that these later models were riddled with inconsistencies as to phlogiston’s weight, its ability to penetrate glass and its role (...) as a source of colour and odour in chemical compounds. (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:Comments on “Moral Complicity in Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell Research”W. Malcolm Byrnes, Ph.D. and Edward J. FurtonIn his article titled “Moral Complicity in Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell Research,” Mark T. Brown (2009) unfortunately mischaracterizes my ethical analysis of the use of induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells for replacement therapies, or treatments (Byrnes 2008). In my paper, which Brown cites, I argue that, just as it is ethically acceptable (...) for parents to allow their children and themselves to be immunized using vaccines produced by cell lines derived from human fetuses aborted in the past, it is also acceptable for persons in the future to benefit from treatments that use iPS cells validated using human embryonic stem (ES) cell lines [End Page 202] derived in the past. The assumption I make is that iPS cells would have to be shown to be functionally equivalent to human ES cells—i.e., validated—before they could be used for cell replacement treatments. (If it turns out that this assumption is incorrect, and primate or even mouse ES cells can be used for the validation, then all residual ethical problems will disappear and there will be no ethical problems whatsoever associated with iPS cells.) I wrote:... [I]n both cases, the origin of the treatment is in a one-time event: either the one-time use of aborted fetuses to obtain cell lines (e.g., MRC-5 and WI- 38) to grow weakened virus strains for vaccine production, or the one-time destruction of human embryos to validate iPS cells, which then effectively replace embryonic stem cells. In the latter case, if no additional embryonic stem cell lines are derived, then derivation of the existing lines could be considered a “one-time” event in the past, albeit an event that extended over a several-year period(Byrnes 2008, p. 287, emphasis added).Note the phrase “if no additional embryonic stem cell lines are derived.” The derivation of ES cell lines inherently involves destruction of embryos; indeed, that is why many people, including me, are opposed to human ES cell research. In my article, I am arguing that, if no additional ES cell lines are derived, then no additional human embryos will be destroyed, and the destruction of human embryos will lie in the past. In this case, embryo destruction could be considered a past event, just as the abortion of a human fetus from which vaccine-producing cell lines were derived is a past, albeit tragic, event.In the process of building his argument that proponents of iPS cell research are morally complicit in embryo destruction, Brown (2009, p. 15) casts me as being in favor of the “derivation of new embryonic stem [cell lines].” This is the exact opposite of my position. In fact, I am opposed to further destruction of human embryos. I believe that the hundreds of ES cell lines already in existence are more than sufficient to validate iPS cells and so no additional lines need to be derived. This means that no additional human embryos will need to be destroyed.Apparently based on the misperception that I support future destruction of human embryos, Brown concludes that “Byrnes’s endorsement of ongoing iPSC validation studies would seem to implicate him and those who follow his lead in formal and material complicity in what they perceive as moral evil” (p. 16). He writes that “explicit formal complicity would attach because he [Byrnes] knowingly and intentionally recommends that embryos be killed in order to facilitate a transition to a future in which no more embryos need be destroyed” (p. 16). Additionally, my “followers” and I would be guilty of “proximate material complicity” as well as “remote material complicity” (p. 16). Unfortunately, this broad condemnation is based on a misconception of my actual position.An additional problem involves Brown’s use of a quotation he attributes to me: [End Page 203]Once embryonic stem cells are used to successfully validate iPS cells, they will no longer be needed and their association with iPS cells will lie in the past. Is there not an element of sadness and resignation in accepting something (iPS cells) associated with an unjust act (destruction of an... (shrink)

This essay conducts a diachronic examination of the thought of W.E.B. Du Bois. In so doing, it reveals a corpus that is marked by a tradition of thinking rarely acknowledged by scholars today: Black nationalism. Du Bois’s early focus on the relationship between racism and imperialism and ideological conflicts with Booker T. Washington and Marcus Garvey laid the basis for his intellectual maturation around the concept of self-determination. After synthesizing the insights of his former ideological rivals, this essay will show (...) that Du Bois affected a revolution in Black nationalist (and human) thought by making the common humanity and autonomy of African/African-descended peoples (and all colonized people) thinkable through the ideology of Pan-Africanism: a truly universal idea of freedom which was antagonistic to Westernism (Liberal Capitalist and Marxist thought). (shrink)

In an unsung yet excellent paper, W.Z. Harvey set out to explain how both Maimonides and Spinoza have similarly problematic views on the nature of the knowledge of good and evil. In it, he proposed an answer to solving the problem. In the many decades since, debates surrounding this topic have flourished. A recent paper by Joshua Parens, his conclusions mark a distinction between Spinoza and Maimonides that threaten to undermine Harvey’s solution to the problem. I will argue that, (...) although Parens’ distinction forces us to revise Harvey’s contention, Harvey’s argument is still generally valid. (shrink)

There are two competing views of knowledge-how: Intellectualism and anti-intellectualism. According to the reductionist varieties of intellectualism defended by Jason Stanley and Timothy Williamson (2001) and Berit Brogaard (2007, 2008, 2009), knowledge-how simply reduces to knowledge-that. To a first approximation, s knows how to A iff there is a w such that s knows that w is a way to A. For example, John knows how to ride a bicycle if and only if there is a way w such that (...) John knows that w is a way to ride a bicycle. John Bengson and Marc Moffett (2007) defend an anti-reductionist version of intellectualism which takes knowledge-how to require, in addition, that s understand the concepts involved in her belief. According to the anti-intellectualist accounts originally defended by Gilbert Ryle (1946) and many others after him, knowledge-how requires the possession of a practical ability and so knowing that w (for some w) is a way to A does not suffice for knowing-how. For example, John knows how to ride a bicycle only if John has the ability to ride it; if John merely knows that w (for some w) is a way to ride a bicycle, John does not know how to ride a bicycle. Here I will argue for a conciliatory position that is compatible with the reductionist variety of intellectualism: knowledge-how is reducible to knowledge-that. But, I argue, there are knowledge states which are not justification-entailing and knowledge states which are not belief-entailing. Both kinds of knowledge state require the possession of practical abilities. I conclude by arguing that the view defended naturally leads to a disjunctive conception of abilities as either essentially involving mental states or as not essentially involving mental states. Only the former kind of ability is a kind of knowledge-state, viz. a knowledge-how state. (shrink)

It is discerned what light can bring the recent historical reconstructions of maxwellian optics and electromagnetism unification on the following philosophical/methodological questions. I. Why should one believe that Nature is ultimately simple and that unified theories are more likely to be true? II. What does it mean to say that a theory is unified? III. Why theory unification should be an epistemic virtue? To answer the questions posed genesis and development of Maxwellian electrodynamics are elucidated. It is enunciated that the (...) Maxwellian Revolution is a far more complicated phenomenon than it may be seen in the light of Kuhnian and Lakatosian epistemological models. Correspondingly it is maintained that maxwellian electrodynamics was elaborated in the course of the old pre-maxwellian programmes’ reconciliation: the electrodynamics of Ampére-Weber, the wave theory of Young-Fresnel and Faraday’s programme. To compare the different theoretical schemes springing from the different language games James Maxwell had constructed a peculiar neutral language. Initially it had encompassed the incompressible fluid models; eventually – the vortices ones. The three programmes’ encounter engendered the construction of the hybrid theory at first with an irregular set of theoretical schemes. However, step by step, on revealing and gradual eliminating the contradictions between the programmes involved, the hybrid set is “put into order” (Maxwell’s term). A hierarchy of theoretical schemes starting from ingenious crossbreeds (the displacement current) and up to usual hybrids is set up. After the displacement current construction the interpenetration of the pre-maxwellian programmes begins that marks the commencement of theoretical schemes of optics, electricity and magnetism real unification. Maxwell’s programme surpassed that of Ampére-Weber because it did absorb the ideas of the Ampére-Weber programme, as well as the presuppositions of the programmes of Young-Fresnel and Faraday properly co-ordinating them with each other. But the opposite statement is not true. The Ampére-Weber programme did not assimilate the propositions of the Maxwellian programme. Maxwell’s victory over his rivals became possible because the gist of Maxwell’s unification strategy was formed by Kantian epistemology looked in the light of William Whewell and such representatives of Scottish Enlightenment as Thomas Reid and Sir William Hamilton. Maxwell did put forward as basic synthetic principles the ideas that radically differed from that of Ampére-Weber approach by their open, flexible and contra-ontological, genuinly epistemological, Kantian character. For Maxwell, ether was not the ultimate building block of physical reality, from which all the charges and fields should be constructed. “Action at a distance”, “incompressible fluid”, “molecular vortices”, etc. were contrived analogies for Maxwell, capable only to direct the researcher at the “right” mathematical relations. Key words: J.C. Maxwell, unification of optics and electromagnetism, I. Kant, T. Reid, W. Hamilton . (shrink)

Theodor W. Adorno’s letter correspondence with Walter Benjamin throughout the decade of the 1930’s entertains the central question concerning the possibility of philosophy in their intellectual milieu. The fate of this possibility for Adorno hinges on Benjamin’s work-in-progress Das Passagen-Werk—a fate that is catastrophically blocked by an uncritical tendency convicted repeatedly by the former as “undialectical.” And yet Adorno obstinately persists in clinging to the canon of a philosophically overdetermined demand he endearingly calls “my Arcades orthodoxy.” The threatening destruction of (...) the aura of this orthodoxy reaches a crisis in Adorno’s ruthless metacritique of Benjamin’s alleged undialectical treatment of aesthetic autonomy in a draft of the Kunstwerk essay, marking a critical wound in the correspondence which the following exposition tracks in the enigmatic changeover in the philosophical exigency of the said orthodoxy from prima philosophia to ultima philosophia. The lingering wound is registered in Adorno’s late philosophical work. (shrink)

W. V. Quine's "Two Dogmas of Empiricism", first published in 1951, is one of the most influential articles in the history of analytic philosophy. It does not just question central semantic and epistemological views of logical positivism and early analytic philosophy, it also marks a momentous challenge to the ideas that conceptual analysis is a main task of philosophy and that philosophy is an a priori discipline which differs in principle from the empirical sciences. These ideas dominated early analytic philosophy, (...) but similar views are to be found in the Kantian tradition, in phenomenology and in philosophical hermeneutics. In questioning this consensus from the perspective of a radical empiricism, Quine's article has had a sustained and lasting impact across all these philosophical divisions. Quine himself moved from the abandonment of the analytic/synthetic distinction to a thoroughgoing naturalism, and many analytic philosophers have followed his lead. The current collection differs from other anthologies devoted to Quine in two respects. On the one hand, it focuses on his attack on analyticity, apriority and necessity; on the other, it considers implications of that attack that far transcend the limits of Quine scholarship, and lie at the heart of the current self-understanding of philosophy. The contributors include both opponents and proponents of the dichotomies attacked by Quine. Furthermore, they include both eminent figures such as Boghossian, Burge, and Davidson, and up and coming younger philosophers. (shrink)

OBJETIVO A gestação nos mamíferos domésticos é um processo fisiológico que implica mudanças físicas, metabólicas e hormonais na fêmea, que culminam com o nascimento de um novo indivíduo. Desta forma, a compreensão de tais mudanças e como estas favorecem um ambiente ideal de desenvolvimento embrionário inicial, até a placentação e a fisiologia envolvidas durante esses processos é fundamental na tomada de decisões quanto à saúde reprodutiva da fêmea, na seleção de futuras matrizes e até mesmo para a saúde fetal e (...) sanidade do novo animal. Neste capítulo, o estudante compreenderá de forma clara, concisa, didática e objetiva, as adaptações maternas e fetais para o estabelecimento da gestação após a fecundação, o desenvolvimento desta e também identificará as diferenças existentes entre as espécies de interesse zootécnico. INTRODUÇÃO O estabelecimento da gestação nos mamíferos domésticos inclui três etapas fundamentais: o reconhecimento materno da gestação ou prenhez (RMP), a implantação e a placentação. Dentro da fisiologia da reprodução nos mamíferos, a implantação e a placenta- ção constituem processos essenciais na nutrição do embrião e do feto e, portanto, para seu desenvolvimento; devido a isso, são etapas críticas para a produção animal já que possuem um efeito direto sobre a eficiência reprodutiva. Nos bovinos leiteiros, por exemplo, estima-se uma taxa de fertilização perto de 95%, embora apenas 55% desses zigotos se desenvolvam e cheguem ao parto, o qual representa uma perda de gestações perto de 35%. Entre 70% e 80% das mortes embrionárias ocorrem durante as três semanas seguintes à ovulação, o que coincide com o período no qual se estabelecem os processos de implantação e placentação supracitados. O desenvolvimento embrionário precoce depende da sincronia de eventos entre o oviduto-útero e o embrião. Foi determinado que a presença do embrião pode modificar as secreções ovidutais e uterinas durante as fases iniciais de desenvolvimento. O ambiente endócrino materno (predominância de progesterona) também modula as características das secreções ovidutais e uterinas para assegurar a sobrevivência embrionária no caso da fertilização ter sido bem sucedida. Se este último ocorrer, então o embrião deverá indicar à mãe a sua existência para que sejam mantidas as condições adequadas ao seu desenvolvimento. Como supracitado, o embrião em seu curso pelo oviduto requer certas secreções para sobreviver e desenvolver-se, no entanto, graças à fertilização in vitro, têm-se dispensado a importância das secreções ovidutais, já que se observou que um embrião é capaz de se desenvolver em condições laboratoriais fora do aparelho reprodutor materno durante as suas fases iniciais, e consegue estabelecer uma gestação normal que chega a termo após a sua reintrodução no útero. Em estágios mais tardios de desenvolvimento o embrião necessita necessariamente do meio uterino para sobreviver e continuar o seu crescimento. No bovino, por exemplo, o embrião só é capaz de alongar-se estando dentro do útero, indicando a presença de fatores específicos necessários para que o embrião se desenvolva de maneira normal. Um meio endócrino no qual predomina a progesterona materna durante a gestação induz a secreção do histiotrofo (ou leite uterino) que permite a nutrição e a sobrevivência do embrião antes da implantação e da formação da placenta, através do qual obterá a maioria do fornecimento e intercâmbio necessários para continuar o seu desenvolvimento intra-uterino. SEGMENTAÇÃO E DESENVOLVIMENTO EMBRIONÁRIO PRECOCE O desenvolvimento embrionário precoce, conhecido como período de pré- -implantação, é essencial; inclui processos de divisão e diferenciação celular que são realizadas no início com uma elevada sincronização para garantir o desenvolvimento correto do indivíduo dentro do útero. Esta fase envolve a passagem do zigoto (unicelular), a embrião (multicelular) e, por fim, em concepto (quando se distingue o embrião com suas membranas extraembrionárias). O desenvolvimento precoce é o estágio mais dinâmico e vulnerável na formação de um indivíduo. Investigações recentes demonstraram que alterações nesta etapa podem modificar características produtivas ou reprodutivas durante a vida adulta. É por isso que é necessário conhecer as etapas fisiologicamente normais envolvidas neste processo (figura 1). Em fases mais tardias de desenvolvimento, o embrião se converterá em um feto com todos os sistemas e tecidos diferenciados observados num animal adulto. Após a fertilização, o zigoto resultante é capaz de dar origem a um novo organismo completo, de modo que se considera como uma célula totipotencial. O desenvolvimento embrionário começa e se consegue graças a uma série de divisões mitóticas conhecidas como segmentação ou clivagem (cleavage, em inglês). A primeira divisão mitótica dá origem a duas células filhas idênticas (figura 1), e ocorre por volta das 20 às 30 horas depois da fertilização, com divisões subsequentes a cada 12 a 24 h, dependendo da espécie. As células resultantes destas divisões são conhecidas como blastômeros. A orientação da divisão inicial que dá origem aos dois primeiros blastô- meros, parece ser guiada pela posição dos corpos polares. As divisões iniciais das células embrionárias são sincrônicas, no entanto, conforme o desenvolvimento se torna assincrônicas. Assim, a divisão mitótica inicial dá origem a um embrião de duas células (dois blastômeros), a segunda a um embrião de quatro células, a terceira a um de oito células e a quarta a um com 16 células, onde passa a ser chamado de mórula. Estas divisões são realizadas sem o aumento do volume do citoplasma, para que seja restabelecida uma proporção celular mais adequada à das células somáticas, já que o ovócito é a célula mais grande do organismo (um ovócito mede entre 100 e 150 μm do ovócito, enquanto uma célula somática mede de 10 a 20 μm); e porque o embrião ainda está contido dentro da zona pelúcida (figura 1). Um dos pontos críticos durante o desenvolvimento embrionário precoce é a ativação do genoma embrionário. Durante as etapas iniciais após a fertilização, as proteínas e RNAs “herdados” do ovócito são responsáveis pelo metabolismo e desenvolvimento inicial do embrião. É apenas até o estágio de quatro (ratos) ou oito blastômeros (espécies domésticas e humanas) em que o embrião começa a sintetizar o seu próprio RNAm (mensageiro) e as proteínas específicas necessárias para controlar o seu crescimento e metabolismo. A qualidade do ovócito que é fertilizado, consequente- mente, tem um grande impacto sobre a sobrevivência inicial do embrião. Quando o embrião atinge uma média de 16 a 32 células é conhecido como mórula (tabela 1) (do latim morus: mora), e nesta fase o embrião começa a compactar-se, o que ocorre porque começam a estabelecer-se diferentes uniões celulares, de acordo com a relação espacial entre os blastômeros. As células centrais desenvolvem-se incluindo entre elas junções comunicantes, conhecidas também como junções GAP, enquanto as que se encontram na periferia estabelecem uniões estreitas, dando origem a duas subpopulações distintas de blastômeros: periféricos e centrais. Cabe mencionar que os blastômeros que compõem a mórula ainda são células capazes de dar origem a um novo indivíduo completo, ou seja, são totipotenciais. À medida que a mórula continua a dividir-se e a crescer, as células localizadas na periferia começam a liberar sódio para os espaços intercelulares, criando uma diferença na pressão osmótica seguida pela entrada de água ao embrião. O líquido se acumula e provoca a separação das células, distinguindo ainda mais as duas subpopulações de células mencionadas (periféricas e centrais) e forma-se uma cavidade cheia de líquido. Esta cavidade é conhecida como blastocele; com a sua formação o embrião entra em fase de blastocisto (figura 1, tabela 1). Da subpopulação celular da periferia se origina do trofoblasto (trofoectoderma) que formará a maioria das membranas extraembrionárias (placenta), e da subpopulação central é estabelecida a massa celular interna ou embrioblasto, que dará origem ao embrião propriamente dito, ou seja, ao feto. Ao continuar a multiplicação e crescimento do trofoblasto à medida que o blastocisto se desenvolve, as células da massa interna se diferenciam novamente em dois segmentos distintos: a endoderme primitiva ou hipoblasto e o epiblasto (figura 1), em que todos os tecidos do organismo (saco vitelino) são originados e as células germinativas primordiais. Uma vez formado, o epiblasto continua a dividir-se e a diferenciar-se para dar origem às três placas ou camadas germinativas conhecidas como endoderme, mesoderme e ectoderme. Este processo é conhecido como gastrulação, e durante este diferem-se no embrião as porções craniais, caudais, dorsais e ventrais, processo conhecido como polaridade do embrião, que orienta o desenvolvimento dos diversos tecidos e órgãos do indivíduo. À medida que o blastocisto continua crescendo e diferenciando-se, vai-se acumulando mais líquido no blastocele, com o que a pressão interna aumenta e a zona pelúcida começa a ficar mais fina. Este fato, juntamente com a ação de proteases produzidas pelo embrião, leva à ruptura da zona pelúcida e à saída do blastocisto (eclosão), pelo que, uma vez liberado, o embrião é conhecido como blastocisto eclodido. O trofoblasto embrionário entra, então, em contato direto com o endométrio, o que é considerado como o início da implantação. IMPLANTAÇÃO O trofoblasto embrionário, também conhecido como trofoectoderma, dá origem à maioria das membranas fetais ou placenta fetal. O processo no qual o trofoblasto se une ao endométrio materno é conhecido como implantação; para isso ocorre uma série de processos altamente sincronizados envolvendo secreções embrionárias e maternas, e interações físicas, durante um período limitado conhecido como janela de receptividade. A implantação é considerada um processo gradual que genericamente se divide em cinco fases, algumas das quais podem sobrepor-se parcialmente e diferir segundo a espécie: 1. Eclosão do blastocisto da zona pelúcida (figura 2); -/- 2. Pré-contato e orientação do blastocisto. É o contato inicial entre as células do trofoblasto e do epitélio endometrial, bem como a orientação da massa celular interna e do trofoectoderma, que assume especial importância em espécies cuja implantação é invasiva, como em roedores e primatas; 3. Aposição - refere-se ao posicionamento do blastocisto numa determinada área e de uma forma específica no útero. Começa a interdigitação das vilosidades coriônicas com o epitélio luminal do endométrio. 4. Adesão - requer sistemas de sinalização que envolvem glicoproteínas de adesão, como integrinas, selectinas e galectinas, com os seus ligantes, tanto no epitélio luminal como no epitélio trofoectoderma. 5. Invasão endometrial - este termo se relaciona ao tipo de placentação e é pertinente sobretudo para aquelas espécies onde existe uma fusão entre células do trofoblasto e do epitélio do endométrio durante a formação da placenta, ou que as células trofoblásticas penetrem as camadas endometriais e até modifiquem as células do endométrio que as rodeiam. Existem três tipos de implantação ou nidação. Na nidação central ou não invasiva, a vesícula embrionária ocupa uma posição central na luz do útero e, na sua relação com a mucosa uterina, unicamente através das vilosidades coriônicas (projeções das células trofoblásticas dentro das quais crescem capilares do feto), há adesão mas não invasão da mucosa. Este tipo ocorre nos ungulados domésticos, mas não em carnívoros. Na nidação excêntrica a vesícula embrionária está inserida num canal profundo da mucosa, parcialmente isolada da luz principal, e se apresenta na rata, cadela e gata. A nidação intersticial é própria dos primatas, rato e cobaia, e nesta produz-se a destruição do epitélio e do tecido conjuntivo do útero, de modo que a vesícula embrionária se afunda na própria lâmina mucosa e se desenvolve em um espaço intersticial. Até o momento da implantação, a nutrição do embrião é histotrófica, sendo as substâncias necessárias absorvidas através do trofoblasto, como foi mencionado anteriormente. A partir deste momento, o trofoblasto começa o desenvolvimento de uma série de membranas extraembrionárias que permitirão finalmente a troca de nutrientes e metabólitos entre o sangue materno e o do embrião, constituindo a placenta. Um fato necessário na implantação é a perda de receptores para progesterona no epitélio luminal do endométrio, e pré-sensibilização do mesmo pelos estrógenos. Apesar de parecer um efeito contraditório, este requisito permite o desaparecimento de uma camada de mucina e outros compostos proteicos, que revestem o endométrio e que atuam como uma película antiaderente que inicialmente não permite a aposição e adesão do embrião. O desaparecimento desta camada ocorre durante a janela de receptividade, seja em toda a superfície do endométrio (ruminantes, suínos e roedores) ou nas zonas específicas onde o blastocisto será implantado (humano e coelho). Por esta razão, a interação física entre o embrião e o endométrio desempenha um papel importante na implantação. Uma vez que a camada de glicoproteínas desaparecer, é possível a aposição do trofoectoderma embrionário e das células epiteliais do endométrio, iniciando assim a implantação propriamente dita através da intercomunicação entre os dois tecidos. A implantação pode ser considerada como a fixação do embrião ao útero a partir do ponto de vista físico e funcional. No entanto, como se trata de um processo progressivo e gradual, em que algumas das suas fases podem ser parcialmente sobrepostas, não existe consenso sobre o período em que se inicia e termina. Na borrega, por exemplo, estima-se que ocorra entre o dia 10 e o dia 22, enquanto na vaca entre os dias 11 e 40 pós-ovulação. Nas espécies polítocas, isto é, fêmeas que parem várias crias como as porcas, os blastocistos se distribuem ao longo dos cornos uterinos como resultado de movimentos musculares da parede uterina, aparentemente regulados por prostaglandinas e outros fatores secretados pelo útero. Por exemplo, nas porcas, os blastocistos se movem livremente entre os cornos, e a distribuição dos embriões ao implantar-se é mais uniforme do que poderia ser esperado se ocorresse meramente ao acaso. Tem observado que a deficiência na produção de ácido lisofosfatídico 3 (LPA3) e/ou seu receptor, ocasiona uma falha na distribuição dos embriões no útero. Por outro lado, não há evidência de que um blastocisto implantado exerça alguma influência inibitória sobre a implantação de outro blastocisto próximo a ele. Como supracitado, o processo de implantação inclui uma complexa interação entre o embrião e o útero, e cada um deles provê de estímulos essenciais para favorecer a progressão do outro, apresentando-se diferenças em tempos e particularidades dentro das diferentes espécies. -/- Porca O período de adesão situa-se entre os dias 12 e 24 após a fertilização. Ao redor do dia sete, o blastocisto é eclodido, porque o trofoblasto está em contato direto com o epitélio uterino e começa a proliferar com rapidez. O endoderme se forma e o blastocisto muda de uma pequena vesícula esférica para um tubo muito alongado que chega a medir cerca de um metro em poucos dias, ele que lhe proporciona uma superfície muito ampla para a absorção de nutrientes. Cadela Os embriões migram entre os dois cornos uterinos do dia 12 ao 17 após a fertilização, distribuindo-se de maneira uniforme. Estes embriões aderem ao endométrio entre os dias 16 e 18, e alcançam sua implantação final entre o dia 17 e 20 da gestação. Cabe ressaltar que nos caninos o período de pré-implantação é o mais longo das espécies domésticas, o que ocorre porque a cadela ovula ovócitos imaturos (ovócitos primários) que precisam amadurecer por dois a três dias, para formar ovócitos secundários, antes que a fertilização seja possível. Por isso, o zigoto canino chega à junção útero-tubárica entre o sétimo e o décimo dia após o pico pré-ovulatório de LH (a ovulação ocorre, em média, dois dias após o pico de LH), entrando no útero em estágio de mórula ou blastocisto em torno dos dias 10 a 12 depois do referido pico. Ovelha O desenvolvimento precoce do blastocisto é muito semelhante ao da porca. Observa-se certo grau de adesão desde o dia 10 da gestação, mas o alongamento do embrião é menos extenso do que em suínos e tem início entre o dia 11 e 12. Para a terceira semana o embrião ovino chega a medir até 30 cm de comprimento. O processo de implantação é concluído aproximadamente entre a quarta e quinta semana de gestação (figura 3). Vaca O processo de implantação é semelhante ao da borrega, mas tem início mais tarde. A zona pelúcida se perde por volta do dia 9 a 10 (blastocisto eclodido) e o embrião começa a alongar-se ao redor do dia 12 a 14, atingindo um comprimento de cerca de 60 mm para o dia 16, embora possa haver uma grande variação individual. A partir do dia 33, o córion é formado e existe uma adesão inicial que inclui dois ou quatro cotilédones, que se interdigitam rapidamente com o tecido materno de modo que o embrião começa a nutrir-se através deles. Égua O blastocisto atinge um diâmetro de cinco centímetros aos dois meses e pratica- mente não se alonga. Entre os dias seis e sete após a ovulação, o embrião começa a revestir-se de uma camada glicoproteica que se forma entre o trofoectoderma e a zona pelúcida e que contém e mantém o embrião esférico depois de ter eclodido. Esta cápsula é uma estrutura única nos equinos (cápsula embrionária), afina-se no dia 18 e se perde entre os dias 21 e 23 de gestação. Na décima semana as microvilosidades do córion se interdigitam com a mucosa da parede uterina e na semana 14 é completada a implantação. Espécies não domésticas Em algumas espécies como os marsupiais, os ursos, focas, doninhas e alguns tipos de cervídeos, pode interromper-se temporariamente o desenvolvimento do embrião in utero e adiar a sua implantação, como estratégia evolutiva para favorecer o nascimento das crias em condições ambientais favoráveis para a sua sobrevivência. Esta estratégia é conhecida como diapausa e pode ser uma condição obrigatória ou facultativa para cada gestação, dependendo da espécie. Os mecanismos que a desencadeiam e a concluem não estão totalmente explicados e são espécie-específica. RECONHECIMENTO MATERNO DA GESTAÇÃO (RMG/RMP) O estabelecimento da gestação em mamíferos domésticos requer a presença de um corpo lúteo CL funcional que produz progesterona em quantidades adequadas para manter o desenvolvimento embrionário inicial e permitir mudanças necessárias durante o período de peri-implantação. Para que o corpo lúteo seja mantido e a fêmea seja impedida de reiniciar um novo ciclo estral, o embrião deve sinalizar sua presença para a mãe. O sinal para o reconhecimento materno da gestação (RMG) provém então do embrião e podem ser de dois tipos: luteotrópico ou anti-luteolítico. No primeiro, a(s) substância(s) produzida(s) pelo embrião que atua(am) sobre o corpo lúteo para manter sua funcionalidade, por exemplo a gonadotrofina coriônica humana (hCG) e a prolactina em roedores. O segundo tipo de sinal previne ativamente a luteólise, e é o mecanismo presente nas espécies domésticas em que o embrião produz substâncias como o interferon-τ (IFN-τ) em ruminantes ou os estrógenos em suínos. Ruminantes Como supracitado, o IFN-τ é responsável pela sinalização para o reconhecimen- to materno da gestação neste grupo que engloba cabras, ovelhas e vacas (figura 4). É um fator produzido pelas células do trofoblasto do embrião, e pode ser detectado a partir dos dias 11 a 12 em ovinos e de 14 a 15 em bovinos. Uma vez secretado, o IFN-τ impede a lise do corpo lúteo (efeito anti-luteolítico) por meio do bloqueio indireto da síntese de prostaglandina F2 alfa (PGF2α). No trabalho acerca do ciclo estral foi explicado que a luteólise requer a presença de receptores de ocitocina (OTR) no endométrio, que ao unir-se ao seu ligante, a ocitocina (proveniente inicialmente do hipotálamo e posteriormente de origem lútea), estimulam a produção de PGF2α e estabelecem um feedback positivo, que culminará na destruição do CL. Para que os OTRs sejam sintetizados, é necessária uma estimulação prévia do endométrio com estradiol, que ocorre através da ligação com seus receptores (ER-1). O mecanismo pelo qual o IFN-τ impede a lise do corpo lúteo é bloqueando, direta ou indiretamente, a síntese de OTR e, consequentemente, a produção pulsátil de PGF2α. Suínos No caso dos suínos, considera-se que o sinal embrionário para o reconhecimento materno da gestação são os estrógenos, produzidos pelos embriões em torno do dia 11 a 12 pós-ovulação. O endométrio suíno produz PGF2α que, quando não há gestação, é secretado na circulação uterina (secreção endócrina), de onde é transportada em direção ao CL para causar luteólise. Se há embriões no útero produzindo suficiente quantidades de estradiol, isso redireciona a secreção de PGF2α para o lúmen uterino (secreção exócrina), evitando que seja liberado para a circulação e, portanto, é sequestrado impedindo que chegue ao corpo lúteo (figura 5). É importante enfatizar que a produção de PGF2α não é inibida, mas sua secreção é redirecionada. Este mecanismo é conhecido como teoria endócrino-exócrina. Vale ressaltar que para o sinal de reconhecimento materno da gestação na porca ser eficiente, é necessário a presença de pelo menos quatro embriões, dois em cada corno, uma vez que se não houver dois embriões, um em cada corno, ocorre luteólise e reinicia a atividade cíclica. Embora os estrógenos sejam identificados como o sinal de reconhecimento materno nesta espécie, o embrião suíno também produz outros fatores, como a PGE2 e o ácido lisofosfatídico, considerado necessário para o estabelecimento adequado da gestação. A PGE2 ocasiona uma redução na produção de PGF2α em favor da PGE2 no endométrio e favorece a contração do miométrio para permitir a migração de embriões. O ácido lisofosfatídico, juntamente com seu receptor, é um fator crítico que favorece a migração intra-uterina, e permite uma distribuição adequada dos embriões ao longo dos cornos. Outras substâncias produzidas pelo embrião suíno são o IFN-delta (IFN-δ) e IFN-gama (IFN-γ), que não possuem ação anti-luteolítica, mas poderiam intervir no processo de implantação. Equinos Na égua é essencial que o embrião, ainda rodeado pela sua cápsula embrionária, migre de 12 a 14 vezes por dia através do útero, entre os dias 12 e 14 após ovulação, a fim de distribuir o fator de reconhecimento materno (figura 6). Embora seja sabido que existe, este último ainda não foi identificado, mas foi estabelecido que é da natureza proteica e seu principal efeito é a inibição da produção endometrial de PGF₂α, mediante a redução na formação do receptores de ocitocina; desta forma, evita-se o início do sinal luteolítico. É interessante notar que nesta espécie a ocitocina não é de origem lútea e sim endometrial. Primatas Ao contrário das espécies domésticas mencionadas, o mecanismo de ação do sinal de reconhecimento materno em primatas é luteotrópico. No humano, o embrião produz gonadotrofina coriônica humana (hCG) após o início da implantação (dias 6 a 8). A hCG estende a vida funcional do CL por meio de sua ligação a receptores lúteos para LH, estimulando assim a liberação de progesterona. Este efeito permite a “sobrevivência” do CL pelo menos até o momento em que a produção de progesterona é transferida para a placenta para levar a gestação a termo. Carnívoros Na cadela não é necessário o reconhecimento da gestação, já que normalmente o corpo lúteo tem uma vida média maior que a duração da gestação. Como na égua, a migração dos embriões através do útero antes da implantação pode favorecer o reconhecimento materno. Adicionalmente, tem sido descrito que durante o período antes da implantação (< 10 dias depois da ovulação), há um aumento na expressão de genes relacionados com a imunomodulação local (IFN-γ, IL-4 e CD8+), que não estão presentes em cadelas durante o diestro. A produção de IFN-γ por parte do embrião canino, como em outras espécies, pode estar envolvida na implantação ou o reconheci- mento da gestação, mas até o momento não foi demonstrado de forma inequívoca. Na gata doméstica, o fator que favorece o reconhecimento materno da gestação ainda não foi descrito. Temos que lembrar que seja qual for o mecanismo envolvido, a produção do sinal embrionário de reconhecimento materno da gestação é importante, já que a contínua presença de progesterona na circulação materna, faz possível que ocorra o desenvolvimento precoce do embrião e eventualmente a implantação, com a formação do órgão temporal mais importante para o desenvolvimento fetal: a placenta. Resumindo, o sinal enviado pelo embrião deve ser dado antes do útero começar a secretar PGF2a, hormônio que causa a destruição do corpo lúteo produtor da progesterona necessária para a gestação. O embrião deve secretar algumas substâncias (denominadas EPF: Early Pregnant Factors/fatores de gestação precoce) que capte o endométrio materno e sirva para evitar a ação luteolítica da PGF2a. Na porca, em vez de ser evitada a secreção de PGF2a, o referido hormônio é “sequestrado na luz do útero” e, desta forma, passa a secretar-se em forma exócrina, sem ter efeito sobre o corpo lúteo. No bovino, o reconhecimento materno da gestação é o processo fisiológico no qual o embrião, por meio de sinais moleculares como a secreção de interferon-τ (IFN-τ), anuncia sua presença no trato reprodutivo materno a fim de evitar que seja desencadeado o mecanismo luteolítico exercido pela PGF2a sobre o corpo lúteo. PLACENTAÇÃO Nos mamíferos domésticos, o processo de implantação é gradual e prolongado, e ocorre paralelamente a processos como a gastrulação e a formação de membranas extra- embrionárias: saco vitelino, âmnio, alantóides e córion. A formação das membranas extraembrionárias nos mamíferos eutérios, ou seja, aqueles que formam uma placenta completa, é um processo indispensável que permite ao embrião aderir-se ou implantar-se ao endométrio materno. As quatro membranas extraembrionárias mencionadas são formadas a partir do trofoblasto, mesoderme e endoderme embrionários. O saco vitelino fornece nutrientes no desenvolvimento inicial do embrião e se converte em vestigial quando a gestação progride; tem origem no endoderma primitivo, estrutura que junta com o trofoblasto e o mesoderma, formam o córion e âmnions. O âmnion contém o líquido amniótico que está em contato direto com o embrião e é a membrana mais interna; ademais, protege o feto, proporciona lubrificação para o parto e serve como um depósito para urina e resíduos fetais. O córion, por outro lado, é a membrana mais externa do embrião e, portanto, é a que entra em contato direto com o endométrio uterino materno; se fixa ao útero, absorve nutrientes do útero, permite a troca gasosa materno/fetal e produz hormônios. O alantóide se origina de uma evaginação do intestino primitivo e é de onde surge o sistema vascular da placenta fetal; a fusão com o córion (placenta cotiledonária), carrega os vasos sanguíneos do cordão umbilical, que liga o feto com o alantóide e é um reservatório de nutrientes e resíduos. Conforme o embrião se desenvolve, o saco vitelino regride e o alantóide se enche de líquido, pelo que este último se funde com o córion para formar o corioalantóides, que se torna a membrana mais externa e, portanto, a porção fetal do placenta. A placenta é um órgão temporário que representa uma interface através da qual realiza a troca bidirecional de nutrientes, gases, hormônios e outras substâncias entre a mãe e o feto. A unidade funcional da placenta são as vilosidades corioalantóicas, as quais são projeções pequenas dos corioalantóides que se interdigitam com o endométrio uterino, cuja superfície de absorção permite essa troca. A placenta é um órgão endócrino capaz de produzir uma gama de hormônios que ajudam a controlar o ambiente uterino, favorecendo o desenvolvimento do feto, além disso possui um papel importante no momento do parto. Nas diferentes espécies a placenta tem características particulares, pelo qual existem várias classificações, de acordo com a sua posição uterina, a distribuição das vilosidades corioalantóicas e a sua histologia. Posição uterina Refere-se à posição do concepto em relação ao lúmen uterino (figura 7). Central: O concepto ao ser implantado permanece em contato com o lúmen do útero. A maioria das espécies domésticas de importância veterinária estão dentro desta classificação. Excêntrica: O concepto penetra parcialmente o endométrio materno, mas mantém um certo contato com o lúmen uterino. Os roedores (ratos e ratos) e a coelha possuem este tipo de placentação. Intersticial: O embrião invade o endométrio, perde contato com o lúmen uterino, e ao crescer o lúmen uterino se oblitera. Os humanos e a maioria dos primatas mostram este tipo de placenta. Distribuição das vilosidades As vilosidades que formam a interface materno-fetal podem estar distribuídas de maneira diferente ao longo da superfície dos corioalantóides, pelo qual a placenta pode ser classificada como (figura 8): Difusa: Neste tipo de placenta as vilosidades estão distribuídas ao comprimento de toda a superfície do córion (corioalantóides) de maneira uniforme. As placentas de suínos e equinos se enquadram nesta classificação, embora, nesta última espécie, as vilosidades formem estruturas mais ramificadas, que são chamadas microcotilédones (figura 10). Zonal: Esta placenta se apresenta nos carnívoros domésticos, tanto caninos como felinos. As vilosidades que determinam a zona de troca de nutrientes e resíduos, e de ligação com o endométrio são delimitadas de forma a formar uma cintura central em torno do feto (figura 9). Distingue-se também uma segunda região chamada paraplacenta, que se localiza em ambos lados deste “cinto”, e do qual a função não é inteiramente conhecida, embora sabe-se que desempenha um papel importante na troca de ferro da mãe para o feto. As extremidades laterais dos corioalantóides nestas placentas não possuem vilosidades por isso não se ligam ao endométrio. Uma terceira região é a zona transparente nas extremidades distais do córion que tem pouca vascularização. Esta zona pode estar envolvida na absorção de materiais diretamente do lúmen uterino (figura 11). Cotiledonária: É o tipo de placentação que se encontra presente nos ruminantes (ovinos, caprinos e bovinos). As vilosidades coriônicas nestas espécies são agrupadas em pequenas áreas do córion chamadas cotilédones, que se interdigitam e fundem-se parcialmente com locais delimitados no endométrio chamados carúnculas, formando, em conjunto, estruturas conhecidas como placentomas. Cabe destacar que as carúnculas carecem de glândulas endometriais, que só estão presentes nas porções inter-carun- culares do endométrio. Os placentomas, por sua vez, são altamente vascularizados e são remodelados com o progresso da gestação, ramificando-se para aumentar a superfície de troca e o fluxo sanguíneo para aumentar os requisitos do feto em crescimento. Nas zonas inter-carunculares, a placenta é ligada ao endométrio por meio de sistemas de adesão superficial que envolvem glicoproteínas. Acredita-se que a adesão do concepto com o endométrio (carúnculas) é estabelecida em torno de 30 dias em ovinos e 40 dias em bovinos. (figuras 13 a 17). Discoidal: Nestas placentas, as vilosidades agrupam-se numa área circular ou oval, formando uma estrutura discoidal. Este tipo de placenta é encontrada principal- mente em coelhas, roedores e primatas, incluindo os humanos. Histologicamente Esta classificação considera o número de camadas de tecido que compõem a placenta e que separam a circulação materna da circulação fetal (tabela 3). O número máximo é de seis camadas, três do lado fetal (córion, tecido intersticial e endotélio do vaso sanguíneo) e três do lado materno (epitélio endometrial, tecido intersticial e endotélio vascular) (figura 19 e tabela 3). O modo de distinguir e nomear os diferentes tipos de placenta nesta classificação é usando como prefixo a camada materna que está em contato com o córion fetal. As diferentes placentas baseados em sua histologia são as seguintes (figura 19): Epiteliocorial: É o menos íntimo entre os tipos de placentas (figura 20). Estas placentas conservam intactas as seis camadas de tecido, portanto que mantêm as circulações materna e fetal mais separadas, e consideradas como as mais impermeáveis. Este tipo de placenta está presente na porca e égua. Lembre-se de que as placentas da porca e da égua são diferentes e as vilosidades ocupam uma grande proporção da área de superfície do córion (figura 19 A). Também apresenta-se nos ruminantes, no entanto, as placentas dos ruminantes apresentam algumas características particulares que as colocam como um subgrupo e se chamam sinepiteliocorial ou sindesmocorial (figura 19 B). Na vaca, este tipo apresenta-se nos primeiros 2-3 meses de gestação. Além da característica de erosão parcial do epitélio endometrial, um tipo de célula único é encontrado na placenta de ruminantes. Essas células são chamadas células gigantes binucleadas. Como o nome indica, elas são caracterizadas como bastante grandes e com dois núcleos. Na placenta dos ruminantes, algumas células do epitélio coriônico conhecidas como células binucleadas, se fundem com algumas células do epitélio endometrial, criando inicialmente células gigantes trinucleadas e mais tarde placas ou sincícios multinucleados. Estes sincícios têm em consequência uma origem tanto fetal como materna, que criam lugares delimitados nos quais em vez de existir intacta uma camada de epitélio coriônico e outra de epitélio endometrial, encontra-se uma só camada que combina as duas origens. As células gigantes binucleadas migram e mudam seu número ao longo da gestação em forma dinâmica. Este tipo celular é importante porque secretam uma variedade de hormônios. Células gigantes binucleadas aparecem por volta do dia 14 na ovelha e entre os dias 18 e 20 na vaca. Endoteliocorial: 5 camadas. Neste tipo de placentação o córion fetal está em contato direto com o endotélio vascular do endométrio graças à erosão do epitélio e do tecido conectivo endometrial (tecido intersticial) durante a implantação (figura 19 C). De modo que o intercâmbio de substâncias e resíduos só requer atravessar quatro camadas de tecidos. Este tipo de placenta é presente principalmente em cães e felinos. Nota-se nas figuras 19 C e 21 que este tipo de placenta é mais íntimo do que a placenta epiteliocorial porque o epitélio endometrial não existe mais. Hemocorial: 3 camadas (figura 22). Aqui o epitélio coriônico está intacto e entra em contato direto com o sangue materno em regiões onde formam reservatórios de sangue semelhantes a poços (figura 19 D). O intercâmbio de substâncias e resíduos entre a mãe e o feto é mais direto uma vez que é necessário atravessar apenas três camadas para chegar até à circulação fetal. Algumas espécies de primatas, incluindo o ser humano e os roedores possuem este tipo de placentação. MEMBRANAS EXTRAEMBRIONÁRIAS EM AVES Ao mesmo tempo que se estabelece o corpo embrionário e os esboços de cada um dos órgãos começam a gerar-se, torna-se imperioso garantir a sobrevivência do embrião. Tenha-se em conta que nas aves todo o necessário para o desenvolvimento é encontrado no ovo pelo que deve-se reforçar a eficácia das estruturas criadas para garantir o objetivo a que se destina. O exterior é fornecido apenas com o O2; emite CO2 e vapor de água no exterior (perda de 15% da água durante a incubação inicial). Além disso, o neonato não é imaturo, como nos anfíbios, mas está em um estádio maduro juvenil. Como indicado, são quatro as problemáticas a que deve fazer frente o embrião: prover-se de um meio que garanta o desenvolvimento volumétrico, amortecendo os movimentos físicos excessivos que possam traumatizá-lo e evitar a dessecação; assegurar que os nutrientes (vitelo e albúmen) sejam incorporados de forma correta no interior do embrião; assegurar o intercâmbio de gases; e eliminar substâncias tóxicas derivadas do metabolismo proteico. Para atender estas necessidades são desenvolvidas uma série de membranas extrambrionárias que se vão expandindo progressivamente pelo interior do ovo. A dureza da casca e sua relativa impermeabilidade protege-o igualmente da intempérie terrestre. -/- Figura 23: Evolução das membranas extraembrionárias de galinha (3 e 10 dias de incubação). -/- Saco vitelino: o saco vitelino é a primeira membrana extraembrionária em formação. Aparece como consequência direta da gastrulação: as camadas germinativas que se formam ao nível do disco embrionário expandem-se progressivamente contornando o vitelo. Assim, as células provenientes da área opaca (equivalente ao trofoblasto dos mamíferos) migram sobre o vitelo, terminando quase por cobrir, o mesmo ocorre com o endoderma mais internamente, formando-se assim um saco bilaminar. Posteriormente, o mesoderma se interpõe entre ambos, progredindo igualmente no sentido distal, rodeando o endoderma e aderindo-se ao mesmo e ao equivalente de trofoblasto. Ao estabelecer-se o celoma, o saco é constituído pelo endoderma e folha esplâncnica do mesoderma lateral. Este mesoderma vai progredindo no sentido distal e se vasculariza profunda- mente; os vasos distais se anastomosam formando um anel vascular denominado seio terminal, que marca o limite do mesoderma em expansão. Assim, sobre o vitelo é distinguível um área distal não vascularizada (área vitelina) e uma área proximal vascularizada (área vasculosa) que vai ficando progressivamente maior. Ao sexto dia de incubação mais da metade da superfície do vitelo foi envolvido pelo mesoderma. Os nutrientes do vitelo são absorvidos e desdobrados a componentes mais simples por enzimas produzidas pelo endoderma, sendo incorporados aos vasos vitelinos que os veicularão até o coração, que os impulsionará a todo o embrião. Durante a fase embrionária (até ao sexto dia de incubação), o oxigênio do exterior chega até a área vasculosa por difusão, incorporando-se daqui ao embrião; além disso, durante a primeira semana, as alterações na composição e volume do vitelo fazem que se disponha flutuando sobre o albúmen, o que faz com que a área vasculosa fique em contato com a casca, favorecendo-se assim a respiração. O intestino primitivo se instaura a partir das porções mais proximais do saco vitelino à vez que o corpo é fechado (2º-3º dia). O saco vitelino vai regredindo à medida que se vão esgotando os nutrientes do vitelo que aloja. Pouco antes do nascimento é incorporado à cavidade corporal como divertículo vitelino que fica unido ao jejuno; o divertículo vitelino persiste até seis dias após o nascimento, constituindo uma fonte adicional de nutrientes. -/- Figura 24: Feto de galinho ao fim, perto de ser eclodido. -/- mnios: no segundo dia (-30 horas) de incubação se formam as dobras amnióticas na somatopleura extraembrionária, perto do disco embrionário. Progridem dorsalmente, terminando por convergir e fundir-se cerca de 72 horas de incubação, coincidindo com o fechamento corporal, assim sendo constituído o âmnios, que terminará perdendo todo o contato com o córion. A cavidade amniótica que limita está cheia de um líquido seroso que garante que o embrião seja desenvolvido em um meio aquoso; este líquido é secretado pelo âmnios, mas também composto por substâncias formadas pelos rins, cavidade oral e aparelho respiratório. Córion: após a formação do celoma e o estabelecimento e fusão das dobras amnióticas, a parte da somatopleura extraembrionária que fica mais periférica constitui o córion (também denominado serosa nas aves); permanece formada pela área opaca expandida e mesoderma somático. Progressivamente vai aderindo-se à membrana testácea interna deslocando o albúmen; sobre o dia 12 termina por cobrir toda a superfície interna da casca. Intervém na troca gasosa com o meio ambiente através dos poros da casca e na captação do cálcio desta. Alantóides: o alantóide inicia a sua formação no dia 3 de incubação. Cresce rapidamente, ocupando o espaço exocelômico, terminando por cobrir o âmnios e saco vitelino. Progressivamente, entre os dias 4 a 10, sua parte mais externa se funde com o córion, formando-se o alantocórion, membrana trilaminar que cobrirá a superfície interna da casca, aderindo-se à membrana testácea interna, cujo mesoderma (esplâncnico) se vasculariza intensamente. A partir do dia 7 substitui completamente a área vasculosa como órgão respiratório, sendo garantido o aumento gradual das necessidades de troca gasosa na fase fetal do desenvolvimento (desde o dia 8), de rápido crescimento. A capacidade de capilarização desta membrana é muito maior do que a do saco vitelino. Na cavidade alantóica acumula-se a urina produzida pelos rins, afastando os produtos tóxicos do embrião; a membrana também age sobre este fluido intervindo na manutenção do equilíbrio hídrico e mineral do embrião. -/- Figura 25: Formação do saco vitelino. Limite entre a área vascular e avascular. Seio terminal. -/- O albúmen perde água rapidamente e torna-se menos volumoso e mais viscoso, terminando por desaparecer progressivamente. A ligação do alantocórion à membrana testácea interna faz com que seja marginalizado para uma posição periférica, no polo agudo do ovo. Aqui, o alantocórion que o rodeia constitui o saco do albúmen. O albúmen é a principal fonte de água e proteínas. A água é incorporada ao vitelo, o que, ao tornar-se mais volumoso, provoca que, entre os dias 3 e 4, se rompa a membrana vitelina; apenas restos mortais devem permanecer entre o saco vitelino e o albúmen. Dentro do saco vitelino, a água se acumula principalmente sob o embrião -fluido subembrionário-; este fluido atinge o seu volume máximo (15 ml) no dia 6. As proteínas serão incorporadas principalmente a partir de no dia 12, seja através do saco vitelino, do saco do albúmen ou por ingestão de líquido amniótico, dada a comunicação seroamniótica que se estabelece. 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Diferenciação e Determinação Sexual dos Animais. Fisiologia do Ciclo Estral dos Animais Domésticos. Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro da Silva, 2021. Manejo na Avicultura: Postura, Iluminação e Incubação dos Ovos. Transporte de Gametas, Fertilização e Segmentação. FERRER‐VAQUER, Anna; HADJANTONAKIS, Anna‐Katerina. Birth defects associated with perturbations in preimplantation, gastrulation, and axis extension: from conjoined twinning to caudal dysgenesis. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Developmental Biology, v. 2, n. 4, p. 427-442, 2013. GALINA, Carlos; VALENCIA, Javier. Reproducción de los animales domésticos. 2006. GEISERT, Rodney D.; SPENCER, Thomas E. Placentation in Mammals. Springer, 2021. GINTHER, O. J. Reproductive Biology of The mare: Basic and Applied Aspects. 2. ed. Cross Plains, Wisconsin: Equiservices, 1992. GUILLOMOT, Michel. Cellular interactions during implantation in domestic ruminants. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility-Supplements only, n. 49, p. 39-52, 1995. KLEIN, C.; TROEDSSON, M. H. T. Maternal recognition of pregnancy in the horse: a mystery still to be solved. Reproduction, Fertility and Development, v. 23, n. 8, p. 952-963, 2011. MIGLINO, Maria Angelica et al. The carnivore pregnancy: the development of the embryo and fetal membranes. Theriogenology, v. 66, n. 6-7, p. 1699-1702, 2006. MOFFETT, Ashley; LOKE, Charlie. Immunology of placentation in eutherian mammals. Nature Reviews Immunology, v. 6, n. 8, p. 584-594, 2006. PRETZER, S. D. Canine embryonic and fetal development: A review. Theriogenology, v. 70, n. 3, p. 300-303, 2008. SENGER, Phillip L. et al. Pathways to pregnancy and parturition. Current Conceptions, Inc., 1615 NE Eastgate Blvd., 2012. SOZEN, Berna; CAN, Alp; DEMIR, Necdet. Cell fate regulation during preimplantation development: a view of adhesion-linked molecular interactions. Developmental biology, v. 395, n. 1, p. 73-83, 2014. SPENCER, Thomas E. et al. Pregnancy recognition and conceptus implantation in domestic ruminants: roles of progesterone, interferons and endogenous retroviruses. Reproduction, fertility and development, v. 19, n. 1, p. 65-78, 2006. VERSTEGEN-ONCLIN, K.; VERSTEGEN, J. Endocrinology of pregnancy in the dog: a review. Theriogenology, v. 70, n. 3, p. 291-299, 2008. WOODING, Peter; BURTON, Graham. Comparative placentation: structures, functions and evolution. Springer Science & Business Media, 2008. FIXAÇÃO DO ASSUNTO -/- 1. Defina e diferencie os processos de desenvolvimento embrionário precoce, alonga- mento e gastrulação. -/- 2. O que é implantação? Caracterize as fases do processo de implantação. -/- 3. Qual a importância do acúmulo de líquido no interior do blastocele? Qual a importân- cia da eclosão do blastocisto? -/- 4. Caracterize os três tipos de implantação e, depois, explique e diferencie os meios de implantação nas fêmeas domésticas. -/- 5. Defina e caracterize os meios de reconhecimento materno da gestação (RMG) nos animais domésticos. -/- 6. O que diferencia o RMG em ruminantes e suínos? -/- 7. Qual o papel do estradiol no RMG em porcas? O que ocorre quando a porca não fica gestante? -/- 8. Explique o RMG em cães e gatos. -/- 9. Defina placentação e sua importância para a reprodução dos animais domésticos. -/- 10. Quais são as classificações da placentação? Classifique a placentação das fêmeas domésticas. -/- 11. Caracterize e diferencie o processo de placentação em fêmeas domésticas. -/- 12. Observe a figura e responda o que se pede:. (shrink)

Recenze: W. J. T. MITCHELL - Mark B. N. HANSEN, Critical Terms for Media Studies. Chicago ­- London: University of Chicago Press 2010, 353 s.

We offer a critical evaluation of a recent proposal of E. Tal and J. Comesa\~na on the topic of when evidence of evidence constitutes evidence. After establishing that attempts of L. Moretti and W. Roche to discredit the proposal miss their mark, we fashion another, which does not.

This paper compares two alternative explanations of pragmatic encroachment on knowledge (i.e., the claim that whether an agent knows that p can depend on pragmatic factors). After reviewing the evidence for such pragmatic encroachment, we ask how it is best explained, assuming it obtains. Several authors have recently argued that the best explanation is provided by a particular account of belief, which we call pragmatic credal reductivism. On this view, what it is for an agent to believe a proposition is (...) for her credence in this proposition to be above a certain threshold, a threshold that varies depending on pragmatic factors. We show that while this account of belief can provide an elegant explanation of pragmatic encroachment on knowledge, it is not alone in doing so, for an alternative account of belief, which we call the reasoning disposition account, can do so as well. And the latter account, we argue, is far more plausible than pragmatic credal reductivism, since it accords far better with a number of claims about belief that are very hard to deny. (shrink)

Revisionary ontologists are making a comeback. Quasi-nihilists, like Peter van Inwagen and Trenton Merricks, insist that the only composite objects that exist are living things. Unrestriced universalists, like W.V.O. Quine, David Lewis, Mark Heller, and Hud Hudson, insist that any collection of objects composes something, no matter how scattered over time and space they may be. And there are more besides. The result, says Eli Hirsch, is that many commonsense judgments about the existence or identity of highly visible physical (...) objects are a priori necessarily false. In a “last ditch effort” to bring revisionary ontologists back to their senses, Hirsch marshalls what he calls the Argument from Charity. We can be sure that there are tables and chairs and that there are no fusions of Plato’s nose and the Eiffel Tower, says Hirsch, because these commonsense platitudes are a logical consequence of the well-known principle of interpretive charity applied to natural languages, like English. In what follows, I assess the Argument from Charity. My conclusion is that if this is the best we can do to save revisionary ontologists, they are surely lost forever. (shrink)

This paper develops and motivates a unification theory of metaphysical explanation, or as I will call it, Metaphysical Unificationism. The theory’s main inspiration is the unification account of scientific explanation, according to which explanatoriness is a holistic feature of theories that derive a large number of explananda from a meager set of explanantia, using a small number of argument patterns. In developing Metaphysical Unificationism, I will point out that it has a number of interesting consequences. The view offers a novel (...) conception of metaphysical explanation that doesn’t rely on the notion of a “determinative” or “explanatory” relation; it allows us to draw a principled distinction between metaphysical and scientific explanations; it implies that naturalness and fundamentality are distinct but intimately related notions; and perhaps most importantly, it re-establishes the unduly neglected link between explanation and understanding in the metaphysical realm. A number of objections can be raised against the view, but I will argue that none of these is conclusive. The upshot is that Metaphysical Unificationism provides a powerful and hitherto overlooked alternative to extant theories of metaphysical explanation. (shrink)

In this paper we show how a student can learn the basics of the system databases using (W3school CSS) which was built as intelligent tutoring educational system by using the authoring tool called (ITSB). The learning material contains CSS and HTML. We divided the material in a group of lessons for novice learner which combines relational system and lessons in the process of learning. The student can learn using example of CSS, and types of CSS color. Furthermore, the intelligent tutoring (...) system supports not only lessons; but exercises of different difficult levels for each lesson. When a student finish successfully the first difficulty level in a lesson, the student is allowed to move to the next difficulty level of the exercises of the lesson. (shrink)

In recent work Mary Kate McGowan presents an account of oppressive speech inspired by David Lewis's analysis of conversational kinematics. Speech can effect identity-based oppression, she argues, by altering 'the conversational score', which is to say, roughly, that it can introduce presuppositions and expectations into a conversation, and thus determine what sort of subsequent conversational 'moves' are apt, correct, felicitous, etc., in a manner that oppresses members of a certain group (e.g. because the suppositions and expectations derogate or demean members (...) of that group). In keeping with the Lewisian picture, McGowan stresses the asymmetric pliability of conversational scores. She argues that it is easier to introduce (for example) sexist presuppositions and expectations into a conversation than it is to remove them. Responding to a sexist remark, she thus suggests, is like trying to "unring a bell". I begin by situating McGowan's work in the wider literature on speech and social hierarchy, and explaining how her account of oppressive speech improves upon the work of others in its explication of the relationship between individuals' verbal conduct and structurally oppressive social arrangements. I then propose an explanation and supportive elaboration of McGowan's claims about the asymmetric pliability of conversations involving identity-oppressive speech. Rather than regarding such asymmetry as a sui generis phenomenon, I show how we can understand it as a consequence of a more general asymmetry between making things salient and un-salient in speech, and I show how this asymmetry also operates in various cases that interested Lewis. (shrink)

This paper examines two recent contributions to the hate speech literature – by Steven Heyman and Jeremy Waldron – which seek a justification for the legal restriction of hate speech in an account of the way that hate speech infringes against people’s dignity. These analyses look beyond the first-order hurts and disadvantages suffered by the immediate targets of hate speech, and consider the prospect of hate speech sustaining complex social structures whose wide-scale operations lower the social status of members of (...) targeted groups. In Heyman’s and Waldron’s accounts we find plausible insights into the nature of identity-based social hierarchies, and the harms that redound to subordinated people under the operations of such hierarchies. I argue, however, that both analyses are unsuccessful as justifications for the restriction of hate speech, because they do not ultimately provide reason to think that hate speech is responsible for creating or sustaining identity-based social hierarchies. (shrink)

In disagreements about trivial matters, it often seems appropriate for disputing parties to adopt a ‘middle ground’ view about the disputed matter. But in disputes about more substantial controversies (e.g. in ethics, religion, or politics) this sort of doxastic conduct can seem viciously acquiescent. How should we distinguish between the two kinds of cases, and thereby account for our divergent intuitions about how we ought to respond to them? One possibility is to say that ceding ground in a trivial dispute (...) is appropriate because the disputing parties are usually epistemic peers within the relevant domain, whereas in a more substantial disagreement the disputing parties rarely, if ever, qualify as epistemic peers, and so ‘sticking to one’s guns’ is usually the appropriate doxastic response. My aim in this paper is to explain why this way of drawing the desired distinction is ultimately problematic, even if it seems promising at first blush. (shrink)

The Question of Iterated Grounding (QIG) asks what grounds the grounding facts. Although the question received a lot of attention in the past few years, it is usually discussed independently of another important issue: the connection between metaphysical explanation and the relation or relations that supposedly “back” it. I will show that once we get clear on the distinction between metaphysical explanation and the relation(s) backing it, we can distinguish no fewer than four questions lumped under QIG. I will also (...) argue that given some plausible assumptions about what it would take for a relation to back metaphysical explanation, many salient views about grounding allow us to give “easy” answers to these questions—easy in the sense that we can straightforwardly derive them from the respective conception of grounding without getting into the sorts of complexities that typically inform answers to QIG. The paper's main upshot is that we cannot expect to make much progress on QIG without first addressing the difficult issue of how exactly grounding is related to metaphysical explanation. (shrink)

There have been times in the history of ethical theory, especially in this century, when moral realism was down, but it was never out. The appeal of this doctrine for many moral philosophers is apparently so strong that there are always supporters in its corner who seek to resuscitate the view. The attraction is obvious: moral realism purports to provide a precious philosophical good, viz., objectivity and all that this involves, including right answers to (most) moral questions, and the possibility (...) of knowing those answers. In the last decade, moral realism has re-entered the philosophical ring in powerful-looking naturalistic form. ln this paper we provide a dialectical overview: we situate the new wave position itself, and also our objections to it, in the context of the evolving program of philosophical naturalism in 20th century analytic philosophy. We seek to show that although this new contender might initially look like championship material, it succumbs to punches surprisingly similar to those that knocked out the old-fashioned versions of naturalist moral realism. (shrink)

The Problem of Overlappers is a puzzle about what makes it the case, and how we can know, that we have the parts we intuitively think we have. In this paper, I develop and motivate an overlooked solution to this puzzle. According to what I call the self-making view it is within our power to decide what we refer to with the personal pronoun ‘I’, so the truth of most of our beliefs about our parts is ensured by the very (...) mechanism of self-reference. Other than providing an elegant solution to the Problem of Overlappers, the view can be motivated on independent grounds. It also has wide-ranging consequences for how we should be thinking about persons. Among other things, it can help undermine an influential line of argument against the permissibility of elective amputation. After a detailed discussion and defence of the self-making view, I consider some objections to it. I conclude that none of these objections is persuasive and we should at the very least take seriously the idea that we are to some extent self-made. (shrink)

In this essay we will consider another basic topic: the problem of the nature of the distinctions between Sitte, Brauch, Wert, Mode, and Recht, on which Weber's discussion relies. These discussions typically involved the untranslatable concept of Sitte, which marks a contrast between practices or customs with normative force and “mere practice.” There is a close parallel to this distinction in American social thought in W. G. Sumner's latinate distinction between the mores and folkways of a society. In what follows (...) we shall simply use the German term as a reminder of its long history in German philosophy. Weber was obviously aware of this history, as was Jhering. Our aim will be to examine Weber's modifications of the received version of these distinctions and to consider the Implications of these modifications. As we shall see, what Weber represents as an innocuous classificatory problem contains a much more significant conceptual transformation, which bears on the general image of modernity as rationalization constructed by Weber. (shrink)

In “What Makes a Scientific Explanation Distinctively Mathematical?” (2013b), Lange uses several compelling examples to argue that certain explanations for natural phenomena appeal primarily to mathematical, rather than natural, facts. In such explanations, the core explanatory facts are modally stronger than facts about causation, regularity, and other natural relations. We show that Lange's account of distinctively mathematical explanation is flawed in that it fails to account for the implicit directionality in each of his examples. This inadequacy is remediable in each (...) case by appeal to ontic facts that account for why the explanation is acceptable in one direction and unacceptable in the other direction. The mathematics involved in these examples cannot play this crucial normative role. While Lange's examples fail to demonstrate the existence of distinctively mathematical explanations, they help to emphasize that many superficially natural scientific explanations rely for their explanatory force on relations of stronger-than-natural necessity. These are not opposing kinds of scientific explanations; they are different aspects of scientific explanation. (shrink)

This paper develops the Diachronic Self-Making View, the view that we are the non-accidentally best candidate referents of our ‘I’-beliefs. A formulation and defence of DSV is followed by an overview of its treatment of familiar puzzle cases about personal identity. The rest of the paper focuses on a challenge to DSV, the Puzzle of Inconstant ‘I’-beliefs: the view appears to force on us inconsistent verdicts about personal identity in cases that we would naturally describe as changes in one’s de (...) se beliefs. To solve this problem, the paper defends the possibility of overlapping people, and addresses a number of objections to this idea. (shrink)

In recent years, metaphysics has undergone what some describe as a revolution: it has become standard to understand a vast array of questions as questions about grounding, a metaphysical notion of determination. Why should we believe in grounding, though? Supporters of the revolution often gesture at what I call the Argument from Explanatoriness: the notion of grounding is somehow indispensable to a metaphysical type of explanation. I challenge this argument and along the way develop a “reactionary” view, according to which (...) there is no interesting sense in which the notion of grounding is explanatorily indispensable. I begin with a distinction between two conceptions of grounding, a distinction which extant critiques of the revolution have usually failed to take into consideration: grounding qua that which underlies metaphysical explanation and grounding qua metaphysical explanation itself. Accordingly, I distinguish between two versions of the Argument from Explanatoriness: the Unexplained Explanations Version for the first conception of grounding, and the Expressive Power Version for the second. The paper’s conclusion is that no version of the Argument from Explanatoriness is successful. (shrink)

Permissivism says that for some propositions and bodies of evidence, there is more than one rationally permissible doxastic attitude that can be taken towards that proposition given the evidence. Some critics of this view argue that it condones, as rationally acceptable, sets of attitudes that manifest an untenable kind of arbitrariness. I begin by providing a new and more detailed explication of what this alleged arbitrariness consists in. I then explain why Miriam Schoenfield’s prima facie promising attempt to answer the (...) Arbitrariness Objection, by appealing to the role of epistemic standards in rational belief formation, fails to resolve the problem. Schoenfield’s strategy is, however, a useful one, and I go on to explain how an alternative form of the standards-based approach to Permissivism – one that emphasizes the significance of the relationship between people’s cognitive abilities and the epistemic standards that they employ – can respond to the arbitrariness objection. (shrink)

This paper explains how the practice of ‘no platforming’ can be reconciled with a liberal politics. While opponents say that no platforming flouts ideals of open public discourse, and defenders see it as a justifiable harm-prevention measure, both sides mistakenly treat the debate like a run-of-the-mill free speech conflict, rather than an issue of academic freedom specifically. Content-based restrictions on speech in universities are ubiquitous. And this is no affront to a liberal conception of academic freedom, whose purpose isn’t just (...) to protect the speech of academics, but also to give them the prerogative to determine which views and speakers have sufficient disciplinary credentials to receive a hearing in academic contexts. No platforming should therefore be acceptable to liberals, in principle, in cases where it is used to support a university culture that maintains rigorous disciplinary standards, by denying attention and credibility to speakers without appropriate disciplinary credentials. (shrink)

Moral error theory is the doctrine that our first-order moral commitments are pervaded by systematic error. It has been objected that this makes the error theory itself a position in first-order moral theory that should be judged by the standards of competing first-order moral theories :87–139, 1996) and Kramer. Kramer: “the objectivity of ethics is itself an ethical matter that rests primarily on ethical considerations. It is not something that can adequately be contested or confirmed through non-ethical reasoning” [2009, 1]). (...) This paper shows that error theorists can resist this charge if they adopt a particular understanding of the presuppositions of moral discourse. (shrink)

Can new technology enhance purpose-driven, democratic dialogue in groups, governments, and societies? Online Deliberation: Design, Research, and Practice is the first book that attempts to sample the full range of work on online deliberation, forging new connections between academic research, technology designers, and practitioners. Since some of the most exciting innovations have occurred outside of traditional institutions, and those involved have often worked in relative isolation from each other, work in this growing field has often failed to reflect the full (...) set of perspectives on online deliberation. This volume is aimed at those working at the crossroads of information/communication technology and social science, and documents early findings in, and perspectives on, this new field by many of its pioneers. -/- CONTENTS: -/- Introduction: The Blossoming Field of Online Deliberation (Todd Davies, pp. 1-19) -/- Part I - Prospects for Online Civic Engagement -/- Chapter 1: Virtual Public Consultation: Prospects for Internet Deliberative Democracy (James S. Fishkin, pp. 23-35) -/- Chapter 2: Citizens Deliberating Online: Theory and Some Evidence (Vincent Price, pp. 37-58) -/- Chapter 3: Can Online Deliberation Improve Politics? Scientific Foundations for Success (Arthur Lupia, pp. 59-69) -/- Chapter 4: Deliberative Democracy, Online Discussion, and Project PICOLA (Public Informed Citizen Online Assembly) (Robert Cavalier with Miso Kim and Zachary Sam Zaiss, pp. 71-79) -/- Part II - Online Dialogue in the Wild -/- Chapter 5: Friends, Foes, and Fringe: Norms and Structure in Political Discussion Networks (John Kelly, Danyel Fisher, and Marc Smith, pp. 83-93) -/- Chapter 6: Searching the Net for Differences of Opinion (Warren Sack, John Kelly, and Michael Dale, pp. 95-104) -/- Chapter 7: Happy Accidents: Deliberation and Online Exposure to Opposing Views (Azi Lev-On and Bernard Manin, pp. 105-122) -/- Chapter 8: Rethinking Local Conversations on the Web (Sameer Ahuja, Manuel Pérez-Quiñones, and Andrea Kavanaugh, pp. 123-129) -/- Part III - Online Public Consultation -/- Chapter 9: Deliberation in E-Rulemaking? The Problem of Mass Participation (David Schlosberg, Steve Zavestoski, and Stuart Shulman, pp. 133-148) -/- Chapter 10: Turning GOLD into EPG: Lessons from Low-Tech Democratic Experimentalism for Electronic Rulemaking and Other Ventures in Cyberdemocracy (Peter M. Shane, pp. 149-162) -/- Chapter 11: Baudrillard and the Virtual Cow: Simulation Games and Citizen Participation (Hélène Michel and Dominique Kreziak, pp. 163-166) -/- Chapter 12: Using Web-Based Group Support Systems to Enhance Procedural Fairness in Administrative Decision Making in South Africa (Hossana Twinomurinzi and Jackie Phahlamohlaka, pp. 167-169) -/- Chapter 13: Citizen Participation Is Critical: An Example from Sweden (Tomas Ohlin, pp. 171-173) -/- Part IV - Online Deliberation in Organizations -/- Chapter 14: Online Deliberation in the Government of Canada: Organizing the Back Office (Elisabeth Richard, pp. 177-191) -/- Chapter 15: Political Action and Organization Building: An Internet-Based Engagement Model (Mark Cooper, pp. 193-202) -/- Chapter 16: Wiki Collaboration Within Political Parties: Benefits and Challenges (Kate Raynes-Goldie and David Fono, pp. 203-205) -/- Chapter 17: Debian’s Democracy (Gunnar Ristroph, pp. 207-211) -/- Chapter 18: Software Support for Face-to-Face Parliamentary Procedure (Dana Dahlstrom and Bayle Shanks, pp. 213-220) -/- Part V - Online Facilitation -/- Chapter 19: Deliberation on the Net: Lessons from a Field Experiment (June Woong Rhee and Eun-mee Kim, pp. 223-232) -/- Chapter 20: The Role of the Moderator: Problems and Possibilities for Government-Run Online Discussion Forums (Scott Wright, pp. 233-242) -/- Chapter 21: Silencing the Clatter: Removing Anonymity from a Corporate Online Community (Gilly Leshed, pp. 243-251) -/- Chapter 22: Facilitation and Inclusive Deliberation (Matthias Trénel, pp. 253-257) -/- Chapter 23: Rethinking the ‘Informed’ Participant: Precautions and Recommendations for the Design of Online Deliberation (Kevin S. Ramsey and Matthew W. Wilson, pp. 259-267) -/- Chapter 24: PerlNomic: Rule Making and Enforcement in Digital Shared Spaces (Mark E. Phair and Adam Bliss, pp. 269-271) -/- Part VI - Design of Deliberation Tools -/- Chapter 25: An Online Environment for Democratic Deliberation: Motivations, Principles, and Design (Todd Davies, Brendan O’Connor, Alex Cochran, Jonathan J. Effrat, Andrew Parker, Benjamin Newman, and Aaron Tam, pp. 275-292) -/- Chapter 26: Online Civic Deliberation with E-Liberate (Douglas Schuler, pp. 293-302) -/- Chapter 27: Parliament: A Module for Parliamentary Procedure Software (Bayle Shanks and Dana Dahlstrom, pp. 303-307) -/- Chapter 28: Decision Structure: A New Approach to Three Problems in Deliberation (Raymond J. Pingree, pp. 309-316) -/- Chapter 29: Design Requirements of Argument Mapping Software for Teaching Deliberation (Matthew W. Easterday, Jordan S. Kanarek, and Maralee Harrell, pp. 317-323) -/- Chapter 30: Email-Embedded Voting with eVote/Clerk (Marilyn Davis, pp. 325-327) -/- Epilogue: Understanding Diversity in the Field of Online Deliberation (Seeta Peña Gangadharan, pp. 329-358). -/- For individual chapter downloads, go to odbook.stanford.edu. (shrink)

Many philosophers embrace grounding, supposedly a central notion of metaphysics. Grounding is widely assumed to be irreflexive, but recently a number of authors have questioned this assumption: according to them, it is at least possible that some facts ground themselves. The primary purpose of this paper is to problematize the notion of self-grounding through the theoretical roles usually assigned to grounding. The literature typically characterizes grounding as at least playing two central theoretical roles: a structuring role and an explanatory role. (...) Once we carefully spell out what playing these roles includes, however, we find that any notion of grounding that isn’t irreflexive fails to play these roles when they are interpreted narrowly, and is redundant for playing them when they are interpreted more broadly. The upshot is that no useful notion of grounding can allow a fact to ground itself. (shrink)

People sometimes try to call others’ beliefs into question by pointing out the contingent causal origins of those beliefs. The significance of such ‘Etiological Challenges’ is a topic that has started attracting attention in epistemology. Current work on this topic aims to show that Etiological Challenges are, at most, only indirectly epistemically significant, insofar as they bring other generic epistemic considerations to the agent’s attention. Against this approach, we argue that Etiological Challenges are epistemically significant in a more direct and (...) more distinctive way. An Etiological Challenge prompts the agent to assess whether her beliefs result from practices of indoctrination, and whether she should reduce confidence in those beliefs, given the anti-reliability of indoctrination as a method of belief-acquisition. Our analysis also draws attention to some of the ways in which epistemic concerns interact with political issues—e.g. relating to epistemic injustice, identity-based discrimination, and segregation—when we’re thinking about the contingent causal origins of our beliefs. (shrink)

Predication is a lingual relation. We have this relation when a term is said (λέγεται) of another term. This simple definition, however, is not Aristotle’s own definition. In fact, he does not define predication but attaches his almost in a new field used word κατηγορεῖσθαι to λέγεται. In a predication, something is said of another thing, or, more simply, we have ‘something of something’ (ἓν καθ᾿ ἑνὸς). (PsA. , A, 22, 83b17-18) Therefore, a relation in which two terms are posited (...) to each other in a way that one is said (predicated) of the other is a predication. The term of which the other term is said is called a subject (ὑποκειμένον) and the other, which is said about the subject, is called the predicate. Thus, in a predication the predicate is predicated of the subject; given that being predicated is almost as the same as being said. The relation between being said and being predicated is so close that ‘if something is said of a subject both its name and its definition are necessarily predicated of the subject.’ (Cat., 5, 2a19-26) This, however, is true only about the second genera and not the accidents. a) Nature of relation in predication What is Aristotle’s theory about the nature of the relation in a predication? How does he fundamentally understand this relation? Phil Corkum distinguishes between predication logic and traditional term logic and argues that the relation between subject and predicate in Aristotle is of the latter kind. While in predicate logic, subjects and predicates have distinct roles, they have the same role in traditional term logic. In predication logic, subjects refer, but predicates characterize. Thereupon, a sentence expresses a truth if the object to which the subject refers is correctly characterized by the predicate. In traditional term logic, both subjects and predicates refer and a sentences expresses a truth if both name one and the same thing. He concludes that Aristotle ‘problematically conflates prediction and identity claims’ because while he thinks both subjects and predicates refer, he would deny that a sentence is true just in case the subject and the predicate name one and the same thing. Based on this, Corkum believes that Aristotle’s core semantic is not identity but the weaker relation of constitution, which is a mereological interpretation: ‘All men are mortal’ is true just in case the mereological sum of humans is part of the mereological sum of mortals. b) Aristotle’s theory of predication: one or two theories? Frank Lewis finds an inconsistent gap between the theory of predication in the Categories and that in the later books of the Metaphysics VII, 6. So too Joan Kung, Terry Irwin, Daniel Graham. c) Distinction of ‘being said of’ and ‘being in’ Owen enumerates the texts in which Aristotle’s distinction between ‘being said of’ and ‘being in’ is asserted: OI. 11b38-12a17; To., 127b1-4; Cat. 1a20-b9; 2a11-14; 2a27-b6; 2b15-17; 3a7-32; 9b22-24 d) Predication in Aristotle and the standard ‘S is P’ Marie De Rijk Lambertus thinks that the ‘S is P’ pattern is misleading when it comes to express predication in Aristotle. In his view, ‘The Aristotelian procedure should be described in terms of appositively assigning an attribute (κατηγορούμενον) to a substrate (ὑποκείμενον), rather than ascribing a predicate to a subject by means of a copula…. The comment should be considered an attribute which is said to fall to a substrate, without understanding this procedure in terms of sentence predication.’ e) Aristotle’s predication: bipartite or tripartite? It is a difficulty to make Aristotle’s theories of name-verb predication and tripartite predication consistent. The reason is that tripartite is not consistant with his name-verb structure based on which he says that the predicate term is the ‘verb.’ (20a31; 20b1-2; 16a13-5) The problem is that in a tripartite form like ‘Socrates is white’ we cannot take ‘is white’ as the verb because, based on Aristotle himself, no part of a verb can be significant itself. (16b6-7) However, his assertions about the equivalences between the two structures (OI. 12, 21b9-10; PrA. 51b13-16; Met., 1017b22-30) must mean that they are not inconsistent in his own view. Thus, as Allen Bāck points, ‘Aristotle seems to think that he has a single, consistent theory.’ The sense of saying or speaking as the root sense of rhema makes the relation between predication (saying something of something) and verb more interesting. The use of rhema in the sense of a long expression approves this. In Plato’s work (399ac) where Socrates claims that the name anthropos derives from anthron ha opopen (‘he who examines what he has seen’) we have an onoma from, or in place of, a rhema. 1) Subject The subject (ὑποκειμένον) is that of which another term is said or predicated. Aristotle’s own definition is of a much more philosophical value: ‘By subject I mean that which is expressed by an affirmative term (λέγω δὲ ὑποκείμενον τὸ κάταφάσει δηλούμενον).’ (Met., K, 1067b18) Throughout Aristotle’s work, three kinds of subjects can be found: possible, prime and absolute subject. a) Possible subject Those things that can take the position of a subject in a predication we call possible subjects, no matter they can or cannot take the position of predicate in any predication. All terms except the ultimate predicates are possible subjects because they can take the position of subject. b) Prime subject Those that in any predication can only take the position of a subject and not the position of a predicate are prime subjects. (Cat., 5, 3a36-b2; Met., Z, 1028b36-1029a1) This is the truest sense of subject and belongs only to substances. (Met., Z, 1029a1-2) In fact, ‘that which is not predicated of a subject, but of which all else is predicated’ is a substance. (Met., Z, 1029a7-9) In Categories, besides primary substances (Cat., 2, 1b3-6), individual qualities are also said not to be able to be said of anything else. (Cat., 2, 1a23-29) Aristotle’s examples are a certain ‘knowledge-of-grammar’ (τὶς γράμματικὴ) and ‘an individual white’ (τὸ τὶ λευκὸν). Thus, although substances are indeed in the truest sense individuals and, thereby, in the truest sense primary subjects, other individuals can take the position of subject as well. c) Absolute subject While substances are prime subjects of all other things, there is still something of which substances can be predicated and this predication is not an accidental predication: matter. (Met., Z, 1029a21-24) This predication is, indeed, the predication of a ‘form or this’ on matter and material substance. (Met., Θ, 1049a34-36) The only thing that is absolutely a subject, therefore, and can be a predicate is prime matter (πρώτη ὓλη). (Met., Θ, 1049a24-27) d) Subject and substance The most important thing in being a substance is being a subject: ‘It is because the primary substances are subjects for all the other things and all the other things are predicated of them or are in them, that they are called substances most of all.’ (Cat., 5, 2b15-17) And what is nearer to this position is more a substance as a species is more a substance than a genus.’ (Cat., 5, 2b7-8) e) Primary versus accidental subject A subject is a primary subject in a predication when the predicate is predicated of it as itself. In such a case, the subject is the subject of the predicate qua itself and not qua something else. A subject, on the one hand, is an accidental subject when it is not the primary subject of the predicate that is predicated on it. It means that a subject is an accidental subject when the predicate is predicated of it not qua itself but qua something else. An accidental subject is, therefore, anything other than a substance. 2) Predicate as universal It is evident from our discussion of kinds of subjects that except matter, primary substances (if we ignore both accidental predication and cases of absolute subjects) and other individuals, everything else can take the position of a predicate. Since primary substances are individuals, it results that everything except matter and individuals are capable to take the position of predicate. The immediate consequence of this is that the predicate must be a universal. When individuals cannot take the position of predicate, this position cannot be taken by any particular. Therefore, only universals can be predicated of others. Moreover, albeit universals can be a simple subject (for another universal), they are not prime subjects. The closeness of universal and predicate is to the extent that Aristotle differentiates universal from subject. (Met., Θ, 1049a27-30) 3) Categories or classes of predicates Aristotle distinguishes ten highest classes into one of which each predicate must necessarily fall: substance (or what a thing is), quality, quantity, relation, place, time, position, state, activity and passivity. (Cat., 4, 1b25-27; To., I, 9, 103b20- ; PsA., A, 22, 83b13-23) The substance counted among predicates must refer to secondary and not primary substances not only because Aristotle insists that primary substances cannot be predicated but also from his own examples of the category of substance: man and animal. (To., I, 9, 103b25) However, if a predicate be asserted of itself or its genus be asserted of it, the predicate signifies substance or what is; but if ‘one kind of predicate is asserted of another kind,’ it signifies one of the other nines. (To., I, 9, 103b30) These categories are so comprehensive that no predicate can remain outside them so that even non-being has as many senses as categories. (Met., M, 1089a26-30) a) That whether Aristotle’s categories are merely linguistic or fundamentally ontological is a so much controversial dispute. Some like G. E. R. Lloyd believe that ‘categories are primarily intended as a classification of reality … rather than of the signifying terms themselves.’ b) Although Aristotle’s categories have been historically regarded as a classification of predications, there are some recent commentators like Jonathan Barnes that think it is classifying predicates and not predications. 4) Kinds of predicates In his introduction of Categories, as J. W. Thorp truly points out , Aristotle distinguishes between the category of substance and the other categories using μὲν ... δὲ construction. This construction illustrates that beside tenfold classification of categories, there is an even more crucial differentiation between two kinds of predicates: substance or what is on the one hand and the other nine ones on the other hand: the distinction between what is predicated of the subject as what it is and what is predicated of it as an accident. Therefore, we have three kinds of classification - a twofold, a fourfold and a tenfold-complicatedly classifying the same thing, viz. the predicate. Predicates can be divided also to four kinds: property, definition, genus and accident. (To., I, 4, 101b11-20) A property is that predicate that is convertible with its subject and does not signify its essence. A definition is that predicate that is convertible with its subject and signifies its essence. It is a genus if it is not predicated convertibly and is contained in the definition of its subject. And it is an accident if it is neither convertible nor contained in the definition of its subject. (To., I, 8, ^103b3) All of these four kinds are among categories. (To., I, 9, 103b20) It seems that there might be some kind of relation between the twofold and the fourfold distinction: whereas genus and definition are predicated as what it is, accidents are not so predicated. There seems to be some rules that determine to each of these four kinds each predicate belongs. At To., IV, 123b30ff. Aristotle asserts: ‘If B has a contrary and A does not, then B does not belong to A as its genus.’ There is a dispute around per se accidents (τὰ καθ’ αὑτὰ συμβεβηκότα) (Topics., 102a18) whether they must be regarded as either of the four kinds or as a fifth kind. Barnes (1970) argued that they ‘do not fit at all neatly into the fourfold classification.’ He argues that based on the definition of accidents at A, 5, 102b4-5, they must be accidents but based on another definition, A, 5, 102b6-7, they cannot be accidents. He also defends the view that they are not properties. Barnes concludes: ‘This shows that the two definitions are not equivalent, and hence that the ‘predicables’ are not well-defined.’ Demetris J. Hadgopoulos defends the view that the two definitions of accidents are equivalent and per se accidents are properties. 5) Five types of predications We have five kinds of predications based on our division of subjects and our discussion of predicates: simple, primary (itself divided to substantial and accident), accidental (itself divided to primary and secondary), aoincidental and absolute predication. a) Simple predication. This is a predication in which a universal is predicated of either a particular or a universal subject. This sense of predication includes all other senses except the first kind of accidental predication. b) Primary predication. This is a predication in which a universal is predicated of a primary subject, namely a substance. A primary predication is of two kinds: i) Substantial predication. A primary predication in which the predicate is part of, or is included in, the definition of the subject. The universal that is the predicate here is the definition or the genus or the species or the diferentia of the subject. It is this predication that Aristotle calls a unity: ‘A statement may be called a unity … because it exhibits a single predicate as inhering not accidentally in a single subject.’ (PsA., B, 10, 93b35-37) It is only substantial predicates that can be predicated of each other: ‘Predicates which are not substantial are not predicated of one another.’ (PsA., A, 22, 83b18-19) Aristotle defines a substantial predication also in another way. A predication in which a higher genus is predicated on a lower genus, species, a substance or an individual, (or a species is predicated on an individual) is a substantial predication. Therefore, a substantial predication is a predication in a series that has individuals on one of its ends and a general category on its other end. In fact, only substantial predicates can be predicated of one another. (PsA., A, 22, 83b17-19) This series cannot be an infinite series because otherwise not only substances would not be definable but also a genus would be equal to one of its own species. (PsA., A, 22, 83b7-10) -/- ii) Accident predication. A primary predication in which the predicate is not part of, or is not included in, the definition of its subject. The universal that is the predicate here is the property or the accident of the subject. c) Accidental predication. This is a predication in which the subject is not a primary subject and its predicate is a substance. This predication is of two kinds: i) Primary accidental predication. This is a predication in which an accident is predicated of substance. Such a predication can go ad infinitum, which is inferable from Aristotle’s assertion that the secondary accidental predication cannot go ad infinitum. ii) Secondary accidental predication. It is a predication in which an accident is predicated of another accident. Such a predication, Aristotle asserts, cannot go ad infinitum because even more than two accidents cannot be combined. Now what is the meaning of Aristotle’s assertion that we cannot continue this ad infinitum? Does it mean that we cannot continue the predication ‘The musician is white’ and say ‘The white is Athenian?’ But why not? Or maybe he means that by adding any predication, we are still in a condition of predicating two accidents of a substance on each other. -/- As primary subjects, substances can also take the position of predicate though not essentially but accidentally. In propositions like ‘the white is a log’ or ‘That big thing is a log’ we observe substance taking the position of predicate but this is only accidentally: ‘When I affirm ‘the white is a log,’ I mean that something which happens to be white is a log- not that white is the subject in which log inheres (οὐχ ὡς τὸ ὑποκείμενον τῷ ξύλῳ τὸ λευκόν ἐστι), for it was not qua white or qua a species of white that the white (thing) came to be a log (οὔτε λευκὸν ὄν οὔθ᾿ ὃπερ λευκόν τι ἐγἐνετο ξύλον), and the white (thing) is consequently not a log except incidentally.’ (PsA., 22, 83a3-9) Aristotle compares this accidental use of substance in the position of predicate with the substantial use of it in the place of a subject: ‘On the other hand, when I affirm ‘the log is white,’ I do not mean that something else, which happens to be a log, is white (οὐχ ὃτι ἓτερόν τί ἐστι λευκόν, ἐκείνῳ δὲ συμβέβηκε ξύλῳ εἶναι), (as I should if I said ‘the musician is white,’ which would mean ‘The man who happens also to be a musician is white’); on the contrary, log is here the subject- the subject which actually came to be white, and did so qua wood or qua a species of wood and qua nothing else.’ (PsA., 22, 83a8-14) Aristotle asks us not to call propositions like ‘The white is a log’ a predication at all or at least call them accidental predication instead of simple (ἁπλως) predication. (PsA., A, 22, 83a14-17) An accidental predication, in which we have a substance in the place of predicate, is different from an essential predication in that while the subject of an accidental predication is said to be the predicate not by itself but as something different with which it coincides, the subject of an essential predicate is said to be the predicate by itself and not because it is something else: ‘Since there are attributes which are predicated of a subject essentially and not accidentally- not, that is, in the sense in which we say ‘That white (thing) is a man,’ which is not the same mode of predication as when we say ‘The man is white’: the man is white not because he is something else but because he is man, but the white is man because ‘being white’ coincides with ‘humanity’ within one subject. Therefore, there are terms such as are essentially subjects of predicates. (PsA., A, 19, 81a24-29) This capability of ‘non-essentially and only accidentally’ being a subject does belong, in fact, to all sensible things. (PsA., A, 27a32-36) d) Coincidental predication. this is a predication in which none of the subject and predicate are a substance or an individual. In this predication, one of the accidents of a substance or individual is predicated of one of the other accidentals of the same substance or individual. For example, when it is said that ‘The white is musical,’ there is an individual, say Socrates, for which both of white and musical are accidents. e) Absolute predication. This is a predication in which a form or a substance is predicated of a matter or a material substance. Some commentators like Loux and Lewis regarded this predication as close to accident predication, both based on inherence. As R.M. Dancy points out, these predications make Aristotle’s theory of predication immanentist: not only accident predications are explained by the immanence of accidents in substances, some of the substantial predications, which were not explained in Categories, are also explained by the immanence of form in matter. It is interesting that in this kind of predication, it is the predicate and not the subject, which is in the strictest sense substance. As the central books of Metaphysics claim, the form is the substance. Thus, in this predication, substance gets away from the sense of ὑποκείμενον. Corkum mentiones 68a19 as the only instance where Aristotle explicitly claims that a term may be predicated of itself, a passage that is, in Corkum’s view, problematic. 6) Demonstrable predicates Those predicates are demonstrable that are so related to their subjects that there are other predicates prior to them predicable of their subjects (ἔτι δ᾿ ἄλλος, εἰ ὧν πρότερα ἄττα κατηγορεῖται). (PsA., A, 22, 83b32-34) 7) Series of predications Since it is possible for a predicate to be itself the subject of another predication, we can have a series of predications in which the predicate of a predication is the subject of the next predication. This series has the following features: a) It has a limit (in number) (PsA., A, 22, 83b14-16) on the side of subjects: there are subjects that cannot themselves be predicated (PsA., A, 27, 43a39-41), which are, as we noted, prime subjects: particulars, i.e. prime substances and other individuals. (PsA., A, 19-22) Aristotle calls them ultimate (ὓστατον). (PsA., 21, 82a36-b1) b) It has a limit (in number of kinds) (PsA., A, 22, 83b14-16) also on the side of predicates: there must be predicates that cannot be subjects. (PsA., A, 19-22; PsA., A, 27, 43a36-39) Aristotle calls them primary (πρῶτον). (PsA., A, 21, 82b1-4) These are the highest categories or the highest genera of categories. (PsA., A, 22, 83b14-16) c) The series has an escalating shape from mere subjects at its downside to mere predicates at its upside. It is Aristotle himself whos uses the words up and down in this sense. (e.g. PsA., A, 22, 83b2-3) d) The predications that lie between lowest and highest ones must be finite in number. (PsA., A, 19-22 especially: 20, 82a21-35) These have subjects and predicates, each capable of both of the roles of being subject and being predicated. A result of this fitness is that neither demonstration can go to infinity nor everything is demonstrable, the two points Aristotle always insist on. e) The upward side includes the more universal ones and the downward the more particular ones. (PsA., 20, 82a21-23) f) It follows from the above features that ‘neither the ascending nor the descending series of predications … are infinite.’ (PsA., A, 22, 83b24-25) g) Reciprocation and convertibility. Except in case of terms (i.e. subjects and predicates) that are at each of the ends of series of predications, namely ultimates and primaries, it is possible to reciprocate (ἀντιστρέφειν) terms and convert the predication. (PsA., A, 19, 82a15-20) h) Antipredication. Antipredication means that in a predication (S is P), the subject becomes the predicate of its predicate (P is S) in the same category its predicate was predicated on it. For example, if P is in the category of quality, antipredication means that S be predicated of P in the category of quality. In other words, P is a quality of S and S is a quality of P. Aristotle rejects this. (PsA., A, 22, 83a36-b3) i) Self-predication versus other-predication. Aristotle distinguishes between a predication in which a term is said of itself and a predication in which a term is said of another. (Phy., Δ, 2, 209a31-33) j) Predicablity (Cat., 5, 3a36-b2): 1) Primary substances and individuals are not predicable. 2) Secondary substances are of two kinds: genus and species i) Genus is predicable able both of the species and of the individuals. ii) Species is predicable of the individual. 3) Differentiae are predicable both of the species and of the individuals. 8) Predication as classification a) Richard Patterson believes that Aristotle’s so repeated construction using hoper (estin A hoper B) in Topics (120a23 sq., 122b19, 26sq., 123a, 124a18, 125a29, 126a21, 128a35. Also in Posterior Analytics (83a24-30) (Brunschwig’s list. ‘expresses the fact that A is a kind of B (esti A B tis), that A is a species of the genus B.’ 9) Universal predication Aristotle defines universal predication (κατὰ παντὸς κατηγορεῖσθαι) as such: ‘wherever no instance of the subject (τῶν τοῦ ὑποκειμέμνου) can be found of which the other term cannot be asserted.’ (PrA., A, 24b27-29) In this predication, the subject is included in another as in a whole (ἐν ὃλῳ εἶναι) and the predicate is predicated of all of the subject (κατὰ παντὸς κατηγορεῖσθαι). (PrA., A, 24b26-27) Attach another discussion we had about ἐν ὃλῳ here. 10) Quantity of predication A predication, truly stated, has a quantity, which is the number of objects under the name of the subject of which the predicate is predicated. The quantity of subject can be stated in four ways: a. Indefinite: when the predicate belongs or does not belong to the subject without any mark to show to haw many of the particulars under the name of the subject it does or does not belong. E.g. ‘Man is white’; ‘Man is not white.’ (PrA., A, 24a20; OI., I, 7, 17b8-12) b. Universal quantity: When the predicate belongs to all or none of the subject. E.g. ‘Every man is animal’; ‘No man is animal.’ (PrA., A, 24a18-19; OI., I, 7, 17b5-6) The contrary of a predication of a universal quality is a predication of a universal quality. E.g. the contrary of ‘Every man is white’ is ‘No man is white.’ (OI., I, 7, 17b20-23) c. Particular quantity: When the predicate belongs (or does not belong) to some of the subject. E.g. ‘Some men are white’; ‘Some men are not white.’ (PrA., A, 24a19-20) d. Single quantity: when the subject is a proper name of only one object. E.g. ‘Socrates is white’; ‘Socrates is not white.’ The contrary of this predication is of a single quantity: ‘Socrates is not white.’ (OI., I, 7, 17b38-18a4) 11) Convertibility of predication. Some predications are convertible, that is, it is possible to change the place of subject and predicate in a true proposition so that the converted proposition remains true. This is supposed to mean that given the truth of a predication, the truth of the converted predication is inferable. The convert form of a predication depends on its quantity. a. Indefinite quantity: This predication has no strictly true convert because its quantity is not stated. b. Universal quantity: It can be converted in two ways: i) A negative universal can be converted to a negative universal in which the terms are changed. E.g. ‘No pleasure is good’ can be converted to ‘No good is pleasure.’ (PrA., A, 2, 25a5-8 and a14-19) ii) An affirmative universal can be converted to an affirmative particular in which the terms are changed. E.g. ‘Every pleasure is good’ can be converted to ‘Some good is pleasure.’ (PrA., A, 2, 25a7-9) c. Particular quantity: If it is negative, it cannot be converted but if it is affirmative, it can be converted to an affirmative predication with particular quantity. E.g. ‘Some pleasure is good’ can be converted to ‘Some good is pleasure.’ (PrA., A, 2, 25a10-13 and a20-24) d. Single quantity: It cannot be converted. 12) Characteristics of relations between subject and predicate 1. A predicate is of a wider range than its subject. It is based on this fact that Aristotle: a) Prevents individuals to be predicate because there is nothing of which an individual be of a wider range. In other words, it is due to the fact that since an individual is only ‘one particular’ thing and, thus, cannot be of a wider extent than anything that Aristotle prevents them of being a predicate. Matthews, however, thinks we cannot use Socrates, a substance and an individual, in the place of predicate and say it of Socrates because ‘Socrates does not classify Socrates: it names him.’ b) Prevents differentia, species and things under species to be predicated of genus. (To., Z, 6, 144a27-) c) Prevents the species and the things under it to be predicated of the differentia. (To., Z, 6, 144b1-4) d) Also about the effect because it is wider than its subject. (PsA., B, 17, 99a) e) Each attribute is wider than every individual it is predicated on, though several attributes, collectively considered, might not be wider but exactly the substance of a thing. (PsA., B, 13, 96a32-b1) 2. The predicate of a predicate of a subject will be predicated of the subject too: ‘whenever one thing is predicated of another as of a subject, all things said of what is predicated will be said of the subject too.’ (Cat., 3, 1b10-15) In fact, it is due to its predication of the subject that it is predicated of its predicate. (Cat., 5, 2a36-b1) Moreover, what is not predicated of the predicate of a subject cannot be predicated of it as well. (PrA., A, 27, 43b22-27) Thus, what, for example, is not predicated of animal, cannot be predicated of man. 3. The predicate of a subject can be predicated of its predicates as well. (Cat., 5, 3a1-6) For example, you call the individual man grammatical and, thence, you call both a man and an animal grammatical. Nonetheless, the predicate of a subject belongs to it more properly than to its higher predicates. (PrA., A, 27, 43a27-32) 4. It is only the subject that can be distributed and not the predicate. (PrA., A, 27, 43b16-22; OI, I, 7, 17b12-16) Therefore, we can say e.g. ‘Every man is animal’ but we cannot say ‘Every man is every animal.’ 5. It is the reason of the relation between subjects and predicates, that is the reason of predication, which is the subject of inquiry. (Met., Z, 1041a20-24) In other words, since it is a meaningless inquiry to ask why a thing is itself (Met., Z, 1041a14-15), the only remaining meaningful inquiry is to ask why something is something else, i.e. to ask about the reason of predication. 6. A subject cannot categorize its predicate in the same category in which it is categorized by it. If e.g. A is a quality of B, B cannot be a quality of A. Therefore, there is no reciprocation in the same category. (PsA., A, 22, 83a36-39) 13) Characteristics of series of predications 1. A series of secondary accidental predication cannot go ad infinitum for not even more than two terms can be comnbined. For an accident is not an accident of an accident, unless it be because both are accidents of the same subject. (Met., Γ, 1007b1-4) 2. Infinite series cannot be traversed in thought. (PsA., A, 22, 83b6-7) 3. The predications of genera on each other must be ended and cannot go to infinity because otherwise not only substances would not be definable but also a genus would be equal to one of its own species. (PsA., A, 22, 83b7-10) Therefore, a series of predication of genera on each other must be limited on both sides. There must be an upward limit in general categories as well as a downward limit in individual because they cannot be predicated of others. Whatever lies between these limits can both be predicated of others and others be predicated of them. (PrA., A, 27, 43a36-43) 4. The order of predicates matters: it makes a difference whether the series be ABC or BAC. (PsA., B, 13, 96b25-32) . (shrink)